<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.2 20190208//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.2/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Obrabotka Metallov / Metal Working and Material Science</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Obrabotka Metallov / Metal Working and Material Science</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Обработка металлов (технология • оборудование • инструменты)</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">1994-6309</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2541-819X</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">Новосибирский государственный технический университет</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">462677</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.17212/1994-6309-2026-28.3-286-314</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="edn">CHLOND</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>MATERIAL SCIENCE</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>МАТЕРИАЛОВЕДЕНИЕ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">Evaluation of the possibility of reducing residual austenite during laser carburization of low-carbon steel by additional cryogenic treatment</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Оценка возможности снижения остаточного аустенита при лазерной цементации низкоуглеродистой стали дополнительной криогенной обработкой</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3287-3298</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="scopus">57189716281</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="researcherid">H-8191-2016</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">5237-9442</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Карлина</surname><given-names>Антонина Игоревна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Karlina</surname><given-names>Antonina</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>канд. техн. наук</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Ph.D. (Engineering)</p></bio><email>karlinat@mail.ru</email><uri>https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Antonina-Karlina</uri><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1953-1584</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="scopus">56432551500</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="researcherid">F-1577-2017</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">7798-9358</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Гладких</surname><given-names>Виталий Александрович</given-names></name><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Gladkikh</surname><given-names>Vitaliy</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>канд. техн. наук</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Ph.D. (Engineering)</p></bio><email>gladkich_87@mail.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1076-2709</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="scopus">55542811800</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="researcherid">D-7344-2014</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">2335-2189</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Витькина</surname><given-names>Галина Юрьевна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Vitkina</surname><given-names>Galina Yu.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Ph.D. (Engineering)</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>канд. техн. наук</p></bio><email>20procents@mail.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0001-5900-065X</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="scopus">56281057500</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="researcherid">ADE-9780-2022</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">2106-3870</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Кононенко</surname><given-names>Роман Владимирович</given-names></name><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Kononenko</surname><given-names>Roman</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Ph.D. (Engineering)</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>канд. техн. наук</p></bio><email>istu_politeh@mail.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7437-2291</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="scopus">56509486000</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="researcherid">A-9010-2013</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">6927-7394</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Кондратьев</surname><given-names>Виктор Викторович</given-names></name><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Kondratiev</surname><given-names>Viktor</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>канд. техн. наук</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Ph.D. (Engineering)</p></bio><email>imz@mail.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Национальный исследовательский Московский государственный строительный университет</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="en">National Research Moscow State University of Civil Engineering</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Череповецкий государственный университет</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Cherepovets State University</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff3"><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Иркутский национальный исследовательский технический университет</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Irkutsk National Research Technical University</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff4"><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Институт геохимии им. А.П. Виноградова Сибирского отделения Российской академии наук</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="en">A.P. Vinogradov Institute of Geochemistry of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><content-language>ru</content-language><content-language>en</content-language><volume>28</volume><issue>3</issue><issue-title xml:lang="ru">ТОМ 28, №3 (2026)</issue-title><issue-title xml:lang="en">VOL 28, NO3 (2026)</issue-title><fpage>286</fpage><lpage>314</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2026-06-08"><day>08</day><month>06</month><year>2026</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2026, Karlina A.I., Gladkikh V.A., Vitkina G.Y., Kononenko R.V., Kondratiev V.V.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2026, Карлина А.И., Гладких В.А., Витькина Г.Ю., Кононенко Р.В., Кондратьев В.В.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2026</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Karlina A.I., Gladkikh V.A., Vitkina G.Y., Kononenko R.V., Kondratiev V.V.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Карлина А.И., Гладких В.А., Витькина Г.Ю., Кононенко Р.В., Кондратьев В.В.</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/"/><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://journals.rcsi.science/1994-6309/article/view/462677">https://journals.rcsi.science/1994-6309/article/view/462677</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p><bold>Introduction.</bold> Residual austenite is an austenitic phase that persists in steel after its incomplete transformation into martensite/bainite/ferrite. The presence of residual austenite in steel can cause positive or negative changes depending on its proportion. Therefore, the finished products must have an appropriate range of residual austenite content. In the process of traditional chemical and thermal treatment of metals by carburizing, residual austenite is an unacceptable defect in the process. Very few papers have been devoted to this issue in the processes of surface treatment of metals with concentrated energy sources. <bold>The purpose of this work</bold> is to reduce the residual austenite in the carburized layer after laser hardening using additional cryogenic treatment. <bold>Materials and methods.</bold> Laser carburizing of 0.2% C steel was performed with a continuous-wave ytterbium fiber laser (LS-16, 1.5 kW, IPG Photonics, Oxford, MA, USA) emitting at a wavelength of 1.07 µm. The carbon content in the carburized layer was determined by glow discharge optical emission spectrometry (GD-Profiler 2TM). Hardness was measured using a semi-automatic Vickers hardness tester with a load of 500 g and an indentation pitch of 0.25 mm. X-ray diffraction patterns were recorded using a SmartLab 9KW diffractometer with a Cu–Kα target (<bold>λ</bold> = 1.5406 Å). The scanning angle range of 2θ ranged from 40 to 100°, and the scanning speed was 2°/min. Quantitative analysis of the volume fraction of residual austenite was carried out in accordance with the recommendations specified in ASTM E975-13. Cryogenic treatment was carried out at a temperature of –196 °C. <bold>Results and discussion.</bold> Different graphite contents in the laser carburizing pastes lead to the formation of different structures and phases (cementite, ledeburite, martensite, residual austenite) in the surface layer. Microstructural examination of the surface layer showed that the structure of the original material (0.2% C steel) consists of soft and ductile ferrite with hard pearlite. The thermal gradient on the surface of the molten carbon-containing mixture, created by the laser beam, transformed the original microstructure into martensite by dissolving the carbonaceous mixture and solidifying the austenitic phase into martensite through rapid cooling. At the same time, residual austenite is formed in the surface layer due to rapid cooling. It was shown that laser carburizing leads to the formation of a modified surface layer consisting of carbon-saturated martensite, residual austenite and carbides. Cryogenic and tempering treatments additionally transform residual austenite in the carburized layer into martensite, which increases the hardness of the carburized layer.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p><bold>Введение.</bold> Остаточный аустенит представляет собой аустенитную фазу, сохраняющуюся в стали после ее неполного превращения в мартенсит/бейнит/феррит. Присутствие остаточного аустенита в стали может вызывать положительные или отрицательные изменения в зависимости от его доли. Следовательно, в готовых изделиях должен быть соответствующий диапазон содержания остаточного аустенита. В процессе традиционной химико-термической обработки металлов цементацией остаточный аустенит является недопустимым дефектом процесса. В сфере поверхностной обработки металлов концентрированными источниками энергии этому вопросу посвящено очень мало работ<bold>. Цель работы </bold>– снижение остаточного аустенита в цементируемом слое после лазерного упрочнения с использованием дополнительной криогенной обработки <bold>Материалы и методы исследований.</bold> Лазерную цементацию стали 20 проводили волоконным лазером непрерывного действия на основе иттербия (LS-16, 1,5 кВт, IPG Photonics, Оксфорд, Массачусетс, США), излучающим на длине волны 1,07 мкм. Содержание углерода в заданном науглероженном слое определяли методом оптической эмиссионной спектрометрии тлеющего разряда (GD-Profiler 2™). Твердость измеряли с помощью полуавтоматического твердомера Виккерса с нагрузкой 500 г и шагом вдавливания 0,25 мм. Рентгенодифракционные спектры регистрировали с помощью прибора SmartLab 9KW с медной мишенью Cu-Kα и длиной волны рентгеновского излучения (λ) 1,5406 Å. Диапазон угла сканирования 2θ составлял от 40 до 100°, скорость сканирования – 2° в минуту. Количественный анализ объемной доли остаточного аустенита проводился в соответствии с рекомендациями, указанными в ASTM E975-13. Криогенную обработку осуществляли при температуре –196 °С. <bold>Результаты исследований. </bold>Различное содержание графита в составе паст для лазерной цементации приводит к формированию разных структур и фаз (цементита, ледебурита, мартенсита, остаточного аустенита) в поверхностном слое. Исследование микроструктурного состояния поверхностного слоя показало, что структура исходного материала стали 20 состоит из мягкого и пластичного феррита с твердым перлитом. Тепловой градиент на поверхности расплавленной углеродосодержащей смеси, создаваемый лазерным лучом, трансформировал исходную микроструктуру в мартенсит путем растворения углеродного состава смеси и затвердевания аустенитной фазы в мартенсит посредством быстрого охлаждения. При этом из-за быстрого охлаждения поверхностного слоя формируется остаточный аустенит. В работе показано, что лазерная цементация приводит к образованию модифицированного поверхностного слоя, состоящего из насыщенного углеродом мартенсита, остаточного аустенита и карбидов. Криогенная и отпускная обработка дополнительно преобразуют остаточный аустенит в цементированном слое в мартенсит, что повышает твердость цементированного слоя.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>Цементация</kwd><kwd>Паста</kwd><kwd>Мартенсит</kwd><kwd>Ледебурит</kwd><kwd>Аустенит</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>Carburizing</kwd><kwd>Paste</kwd><kwd>Martensite</kwd><kwd>Ledeburite</kwd><kwd>Austenite</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group/></article-meta></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Filippov M.A., Kositsyna I.I., Gervas'ev M.A. Uprochnenie i zashchita poverkhnosti metallov [Hardening and protection of metal surfaces]. Ekaterinburg, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences Publ., 2012. 234 p.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Филиппов М.А., Косицына И.И., Гервасьев М.А. Упрочнение и защита поверхности металлов. – Екатеринбург: УрО РАН, 2012. – 234 с.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B2"><label>2.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lakhtin Yu.M., Arzamasov B.N. Khimiko-termicheskaya obrabotka metallov [Chemical-thermal treatment of metals]. Moscow, Metallurgiya Publ., 1985. 256 p.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Лахтин Ю.М., Арзамасов Б.Н. Химико-термическая обработка металлов. – М.: Металлургия, 1985. – 256 с.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B3"><label>3.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Madu M.J., Adedipe O., Lawal S.A., Abdulrahman A.S. The influence of carburization parameters on the mechanical behavior of mild steel: a review. Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, 2025, vol. 72 (1), p. 193. DOI: 10.1186/s44147-025-00776-9.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">The influence of carburization parameters on the mechanical behavior of mild steel: a review / M.J. Madu, O. Adedipe, S.A. Lawal, A.S. Abdulrahman // Journal of Engineering and Applied Science. – 2025. – Vol. 72 (1). – P. 193. – DOI: 10.1186/s44147-025-00776-9.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B4"><label>4.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Jumadin M.H., Abdullah B., Ismail M.H., Alias S.K., Ahmad S. Effect of soaking time on paste carburizing of carburized low carbon steel. Key Engineering Materials, 2017, vol. 740, pp. 93–99. DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.740.93.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Effect of soaking time on paste carburizing of carburized low carbon steel / M.H. Jumadin, B. Abdullah, M.H. Ismail, S.K. Alias, S. Ahmad // Key Engineering Materials. – 2017. – Vol. 740. – P. 93–99. – DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.740.93.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B5"><label>5.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Qin S., Zhang C., Zhang B., Ma H., Zhao M. Effect of carburizing process on high cycle fatigue behavior of 18CrNiMo7-6 steel. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2022, vol. 16, pp. 1136–1149. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.12.074.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Effect of carburizing process on high cycle fatigue behavior of 18CrNiMo7-6 steel / S. Qin, C. Zhang, B. Zhang, H. Ma, M. Zhao // Journal of Materials Research and Technology. – 2022. – Vol. 16. – P. 1136–1149. – DOI: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.12.074.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B6"><label>6.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Abdenour S., Linda A., Oualid C., Ali B., Salah L.M., Hamid D., Francisco C. Influence of the carburization time on the structural and mechanical properties of XC20 steel. Materials Research Express, 2021, vol. 8 (8), p. 085604. DOI: 10.1088/2053-1591/ac1ece.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Influence of the carburization time on the structural and mechanical properties of XC20 steel / S. Abdenour, A. Linda, C. Oualid, B. Ali, L.M. Salah, D. Hamid, C. Francisco // Materials Research Express. – 2021. – Vol. 8 (8). – P. 085604. – DOI: 10.1088/2053-1591/ac1ece.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B7"><label>7.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zhou Y.-L., Xia F., Xie A.-J., Peng H.-P., Wang J.-H., Li Z.-W. A review – Effect of accelerating methods on gas nitriding: accelerating mechanism, nitriding behavior, and techno-economic analysis. Coatings, 2023, vol. 13 (11), p. 1846. DOI: 10.3390/coatings13111846.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">A review – Effect of accelerating methods on gas nitriding: accelerating mechanism, nitriding behavior, and techno-economic analysis / Y.L. Zhou, F. Xia, A.J. Xie, H.P. Peng, J.H. Wang, Z.W. Li // Coatings. – 2023. – Vol. 13 (11). – P. 1846. – DOI: 10.3390/coatings13111846.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B8"><label>8.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Song H., Tao F. Laser-assisted coating techniques and surface modifications. Coatings, 2026, vol. 16 (4), p. 430. DOI: 10.3390/coatings16040430.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Song H., Tao F. Laser-assisted coating techniques and surface modifications // Coatings. – 2026. – Vol. 16 (4). – P. 430. – DOI: 10.3390/coatings16040430.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B9"><label>9.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Shin W.-S., Yoo H.J., Kim J.H., Choi J., Chun E.-J., Park C., Kim Y.-J. Effect of laser heat-treatment and laser nitriding on the microstructural evolutions and wear behaviors of AISI P21 mold steel. Metals, 2020, vol. 10 (11), p. 1487. DOI: 10.3390/met10111487.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Effect of laser heat-treatment and laser nitriding on the microstructural evolutions and wear behaviors of AISI P21 mold steel / W.S. Shin, H.J. Yoo, J.H. Kim, J. Choi, E.J. Chun, C. Park, Y.J. Kim // Metals. – 2020. – Vol. 10 (11). – P. 1487. – DOI: 10.3390/met10111487.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B10"><label>10.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Brover G.I., Brover A.V., Dyachenko L.D. Struktura i svoistva instrumental'nykh stalei posle obrabotki razlichnymi istochnikami kontsentrirovannykh potokov energii [Structure and Properties of Tool Steels after Treatment with Various Sources of Concentrated Energy Flows]. Uprochnyayushchie tekhnologii i pokrytiya = Strengthening Technologies and Coatings, 2005, no. 12, pp. 27–31.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Бровер Г.И., Бровер А.В., Дьяченко Л.Д. Структура и свойства инструментальных сталей после обработки различными источниками концентрированных потоков энергии // Упрочняющие технологии и покрытия. – 2005. – № 12. – С. 27–31.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B11"><label>11.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chudina O.V. Kombinirovannye metody poverkhnostnogo uprochneniya stalei s primeneniem lazernogo nagreva: teoriya i tekhnologiya [Combined methods of surface hardening of steels using laser heating: theory and technology]. Moscow, MADI Publ., 2003. 248 p.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Чудина О.В. Комбинированные методы поверхностного упрочнения сталей с применением лазерного нагрева: теория и технология. – М.: МАДИ, 2003. – 248 с.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B12"><label>12.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Grigoryants A.G., Shiganov I.N., Misyurov A.I. Tekhnologicheskie protsessy lazernoi obrabotki [Technological processes of laser processing]. Moscow, Bauman MSTU Publ., 2006. 664 p.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Григорьянц А.Г., Шиганов И.Н., Мисюров А.И. Технологические процессы лазерной обработки: учебное пособие для вузов. – М.: Изд-во МГТУ им. Н.Э. Баумана, 2006. – 664 с.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B13"><label>13.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Losinskaya A.A., Lozhkina E.A., Bardin A.I. Structure and properties of steel case-hardened by non-vacuum electron-beam cladding of carbon fibers. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineeringб 2017, vol. 286, p. 012036. DOI: 10.1088/1757-899X/286/1/012036.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Losinskaya A.A., Lozhkina E.A., Bardin A.I. Structure and properties of steel case-hardened by non-vacuum electron-beam cladding of carbon fibers // IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. – 2017. – Vol. 286. – P. 012036. – DOI: 10.1088/1757-899X/286/1/012036.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B14"><label>14.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bataev I.A., Golkovskii M.G., Bataev A.A., Losinskaya A.A., Dostovalov R.A., Popelyukh A.I., Drobyaz E.A. Surface hardening of steels with carbon by non-vacuum electron-beam processing. Surface and Coatings Technology, 2014, vol. 242, pp. 164–169. DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2014.01.038.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Surface hardening of steels with carbon by non-vacuum electron-beam processing / I. Bataev, M. Golkovskii, A. Bataev, A. Losinskaya, R. Dostovalov, A. Popelyukh, E. Drobyaz // Surface and Coatings Technology. – 2014. – Vol. 242. – P. 164–169. – DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2014.01.038.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B15"><label>15.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bataev I.A., Golkovskii M.G., Losinskaya A.A., Bataev A.A., Popelyukh A.I., Hassel T., Golovin D.D. Non-vacuum electron-beam carburizing and surface hardening of mild steel. Applied Surface Science, 2014, vol. 322, pp. 6–14. DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.09.137.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Non-vacuum electron-beam carburizing and surface hardening of mild steel / I.A. Bataev, M.G. Golkovskii, A.A. Losinskaya, A.A. Bataev, A.I. Popelyukh, T. Hassel, D.D. Golovin // Applied Surface Science. – 2014. – Vol. 322. – P. 6–14. – DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.09.137.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B16"><label>16.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Skorynina P.A., Makarov A.V., Menshakov A.I., Osintseva A.L. Vliyanie nizkotemperaturnoi tsementatsii v plazme elektronnogo puchka na uprochnenie i sherokhovatost' poverkhnosti metastabil'noi austenitnoi stali [Effect of low-temperature carburizing in electron beam plasma on the hardening and surface roughness of metastable austenitic steel]. Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science, 2019, vol. 21 (2), pp. 97–109. DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2019-21.2-97-109.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Влияние низкотемпературной цементации в плазме электронного пучка на упрочнение и шероховатость поверхности метастабильной аустенитной стали / П.А. Скорынина, А.В. Макаров, А.И. Меньшаков, А.Л. Осинцева // Обработка металлов (технология, оборудование, инструменты). – 2019. – Т. 21, № 2. – С. 97–109. – DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2019-21.2-97-109.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B17"><label>17.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Losinskaya A.A., Drobyaz E.A., Bataev V.A., Plotnikova N.V., Golkovsky M.G. Struktura i svoistva poverkhnostnykh sloev nizkouglerodistoi stali, poluchennykh metodom naplavki uglerodsoderzhashchikh poroshkovykh smesei i posleduyushchei zakalki [Structure and properties of surface layers of low-carbon steel obtained by surfacing carbon-containing powder mixtures and subsequent hardening]. Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science, 2013, no. 4 (61), pp. 5–11.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Структура и свойства поверхностных слоев низкоуглеродистой стали, полученных методом наплавки углеродсодержащих порошковых смесей и последующей закалки / А.А. Лосинская, Е.А. Дробяз, В.А. Батаев, Н.В. Плотникова, М.Г. Голковский // Обработка металлов: технология, оборудование, инструменты. – 2013. – № 4 (61). – С. 5–11.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B18"><label>18.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Savrai R.A., Skorynina P.A., Makarov A.V., Men’shakov A.I., Gaviko V.S. Vliyanie friktsionnoi obrabotki i nizkotemperaturnoi plazmennoi tsementatsii na strukturu i fazovyi sostav metastabil'noi austenitnoi stali [The influence of frictional treatment and low-temperature plasma carburizing on the structure and phase composition of metastable austenitic steel]. Fizika metallov i metallovedenie = Physics of Metals and Metallography, 2023, vol. 124, no. 5, pp. 409–416. DOI: 10.31857/S0015323023600442.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Влияние фрикционной обработки и низкотемпературной плазменной цементации на структуру и фазовый состав метастабильной аустенитной стали / Р.А. Саврай, П.А. Скорынина, А.В. Макаров, А.И. Меньшаков, В.С. Гавико // Физика металлов и металловедение. – 2023. – Т. 124, № 5. – С. 409–416. – DOI: 10.31857/S0015323023600442.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B19"><label>19.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Savrai R.A. Skorynina P.A. Makarov A.V. Osinceva A.L. Structure and surface properties of metastable austenitic steel subjected to liquid carburizing at a reduced temperature. Physics of Metals and Metallography, 2020, vol. 121 (1), pp. 65–71. DOI: 10.1134/S0031918X20010135.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Structure and surface properties of metastable austenitic steel subjected to liquid carburizing at a reduced temperature / R.A. Savrai, P.A. Skorynina, A.V. Makarov, A.L. Osinceva // Physics of Metals and Metallography. – 2020. – Vol. 121 (1). – P. 65–71. – DOI: 10.1134/S0031918X20010135.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B20"><label>20.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Savrai R.A. Skorynina P.A. Makarov A.V. Osinceva A.L. Effect of liquid carburizing at lowered temperature on the micromechanical characteristics of metastable austenitic steel. Physics of Metals and Metallography, 2020, vol. 121 (10), pp. 1015–1020. DOI: 10.1134/S0031918X20100105.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Effect of liquid carburizing at lowered temperature on the micromechanical characteristics of metastable austenitic steel / R.A. Savrai, P.A. Skorynina, A.V. Makarov, A.L. Osinceva // Physics of Metals and Metallography. – 2020. – Vol. 121 (10). – P. 1015–1020. – DOI: 10.1134/S0031918X20100105.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B21"><label>21.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Karlina Y.I., Balanovskiy A.E., Kurdyumov G.E., Gladkikh V.A., Konyukhov V.Y., Oparina T.A., Kononenko R.V., Kondratiev V.V. Visualization of the reverse side of cathode and anode spots in a welding arc. Applied Sciences, 2026, vol. 16, p. 3385. DOI: 10.3390/app16073385.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Visualization of the reverse side of cathode and anode spots in a welding arc / Y.I. Karlina, A.E. Balanovskiy, G.E. Kurdyumov, V.A. Gladkikh, V.Y. Konyukhov, T.A. Oparina, R.V. Kononenko, V.V. Kondratiev // Applied Sciences. – 2026. – Vol. 16. – P. 3385. – DOI: 10.3390/app16073385.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B22"><label>22.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Balanovsky A.E., Vu Van Huy. Nasyshchenie poverkhnosti metalla uglerodom pri plazmennoi poverkhnostnoi obrabotke [Saturation of the metal surface with carbon during plasma surface treatment]. Uprochnyayushchie tekhnologii i pokrytiya = Strengthening Technologies and Coatings, 2017, vol. 13, no. 9 (153), pp. 82–91.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Балановский А.Е., Ву Ван Гюи. Насыщение поверхности металла углеродом при плазменной поверхностной обработке // Упрочняющие технологии и покрытия. – 2017. – Т. 13, № 9 (153). – С. 82–91.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B23"><label>23.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Vu Van Huy, Balanovsky A.E. Issledovanie iznosostoikosti poverkhnosti stali posle plazmennoi tsementatsii s ispol'zovaniem uglerodosoderzhashchei pasty [Study of wear resistance of steel surface after plasma carburizing using carbon-containing paste]. Vestnik Irkutskogo gosudarstvennogo tekhnicheskogo universiteta = Bulletin of Irkutsk State Technical University, 2017, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 10–21.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ву Ван Гюи, Балановский А.Е. Исследование износостойкости поверхности стали после плазменной цементации с использованием углеродосодержащей пасты // Вестник ИрГТУ. – 2017. – Т. 21, № 4. – С. 10–21.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B24"><label>24.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Vu Van Huy, Balanovsky A.E. Fizicheskie osnovy tekhnologii plazmennoi poverkhnostnoi tsementatsii detalei na primere vtulki shpintona passazhirskogo vagona [Physical principles of plasma surface carburizing of parts as exemplified by an antirattle bushing of a passenger coach]. Vestnik Irkutskogo gosudarstvennogo tekhnicheskogo universiteta = Bulletin of Irkutsk State Technical University, 2017, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 10–22.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ву Ван Гюи, Балановский А.Е. Физические основы технологии плазменной поверхностной цементации деталей на примере втулки шпинтона пассажирского вагона // Вестник ИрГТУ. – 2017. – Т. 21, № 3. – С. 10–22.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B25"><label>25.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Balanovskii A., Vu Van Huy. Plasma surface carburizing with graphite paste. Letters on Materials, 2017, vol. 7 (2), pp. 175–179. DOI: 10.22226/2410-3535-2017-2-175-179.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Балановский А.Е., Ву Ван Гюи. Плазменная поверхностная цементация с использованием графитового покрытия // Письма о материалах. – 2017. – Т. 7, № 2. – С. 175–179. – DOI: 10.22226/2410-3535-2017-2-175-179.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B26"><label>26.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Balanovskii A.E., Grechneva M.V., Vu Van Huy, Zhuravlev D.A. New plasma carburizing method. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 2017, vol. 87, p. 092003. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/87/9/092003.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">New plasma carburizing method / A.E. Balanovskii, M.V. Grechneva, Vu Van Huy, D.A. Zhuravlev // IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. – 2017. – Vol. 87. – P. 092003. – DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/87/9/092003.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B27"><label>27.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Vu V.H., Balanovskiy A.E., Doan V.T., Nguyen V.T. Surface saturation with carbon using plasma arc and graphite coating. Tribology in Industry, 2021, vol. 43 (2), pp. 211–221. DOI: 10.24874/ti.951.08.20.12.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Surface saturation with carbon using plasma arc and graphite coating / V.H. Vu, A.E. Balanovskiy, V.T. Doan, V.T. Nguyen // Tribology in Industry. – 2021. – Vol. 43 (2). – P. 211–221. – DOI: 10.24874/ti.951.08.20.12.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B28"><label>28.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Balanovskiy A.E. Digital visualisation of the process of heating and melting of metal in arc discharge with a non-consumable electrode. Welding International, 2017, vol. 31 (6), pp. 467–476. DOI: 10.1080/09507116.2016.1268765.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Balanovskiy A.E. Digital visualisation of the process of heating and melting of metal in arc discharge with a non-consumable electrode // Welding International. – 2017. – Vol. 31 (6). – P. 467–476. – DOI: 10.1080/09507116.2016.1268765.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B29"><label>29.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Höche D., Kaspar J., Schaaf P. 2 – Laser nitriding and carburization of materials. Laser surface engineering: processes and applications. Ed. by J. Lawrence and D.G. Waugh. Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials, no. 65. Elsevier, 2015, pp. 33–58. DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-78242-074-3.00002-7.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Höche D., Kaspar J., Schaaf P. 2 – Laser nitriding and carburization of materials // Laser surface engineering: processes and applications / ed. by J. Lawrence and D.G. Waugh. – Elsevier, 2015. – P. 33–58. – (Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials; no. 65). – DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-78242-074-3.00002-7.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B30"><label>30.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Katsamas A.I., Haidemenopoulos G.N. Laser-beam carburizing of low-alloy steels. Surface and Coatings Technology, 2001, vol. 139 (2–3), pp. 183–191. DOI: 10.1016/S0257-8972(00)01061-6.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Katsamas A.I., Haidemenopoulos G.N. Laser-beam carburizing of low-alloy steels // Surface and Coatings Technology. – 2001. – Vol. 139 (2–3). – P. 183–191. – DOI: 10.1016/S0257-8972(00)01061-6.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B31"><label>31.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Maharjan N., Zhou W., Wu N. Direct laser hardening of AISI 1020 steel under controlled gas atmosphere. Surface and Coatings Technology, 2020, vol. 385, p. 125399. DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2020.125399.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Maharjan N., Zhou W., Wu N. Direct laser hardening of AISI 1020 steel under controlled gas atmosphere // Surface and Coatings Technology. – 2020. – Vol. 385. – P. 125399. – DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2020.125399.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B32"><label>32.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zhang J., Yu M., Li Z., Liu Y., Zhang Q., Jiang R., Sun S. The effect of laser energy density on the microstructure, residual stress and phase composition of H13 steel treated by laser surface melting. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2021, vol. 856, p. 158168. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.158168.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">The effect of laser energy density on the microstructure, residual stress and phase composition of H13 steel treated by laser surface melting / J. Zhang, M. Yu, Z. Li, Y. Liu, Q. Zhang, R. Jiang, S. Sun // Journal of Alloys and Compounds. – 2021. – Vol. 856. – P. 158168. – DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.158168.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B33"><label>33.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kluczyński J., Jasik K., Łuszczek J., Pokropek J. laser surface hardening of carburized steels: a review of process parameters and application in gear manufacturing. Materials, 2025, vol. 18 (15), p. 3623. DOI: 10.3390/ma18153623.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Laser surface hardening of carburized steels: a review of process parameters and application in gear manufacturing / J. Kluczynski, K. Jasik, J. Luszczek, J. Pokropek // Materials. – 2025. – Vol. 18 (15). – P. 3623. – DOI: 10.3390/ma18153623.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B34"><label>34.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Pozdnyakov E.P., Stepankin I.N. Vliyanie dlitel'nosti tsementatsii na strukturu i svoistva konstruktsionnykh sredneuglerodistykh stalei 40Kh, 35KhGSA i 42CrMoS4 [Influence of cementation duration on the structure and properties of structural middle carbon steel 40Cr4, 35CrMnSi4 and 42CrMoS4]. Lit'e i metallurgiya = Foundry Production and Metallurgy, 2024, no. 1, pp. 69–77. DOI: 10.21122/1683-6065-2024-1-69-77.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Поздняков Е.П., Степанкин И.Н. Влияние длительности цементации на структуру и свойства конструкционных среднеуглеродистых сталей 40Х, 35ХГСА и 42CrMoS4 // Литье и металлургия. – 2024. – № 1. – С. 69–77. – DOI: 10.21122/1683-6065-2024-1-69-77.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B35"><label>35.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Karlina Yu.I., Konyukhov V.Yu., Oparina T.A. Issledovanie protsessa poverkhnostnogo obezuglerozhivaniya stali 20 posle tsementatsii i termicheskoi obrabotki [Investigation of the process of surface decarburization of steel 20 after cementation and heat treatment]. Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science, 2025, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 122–136. DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2025-27.3-122-136.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Карлина Ю.И., Конюхов В.Ю., Опарина Т.А. Исследование процесса поверхностного обезуглероживания стали 20 после цементации и термической обработки // Обработка металлов (технология, оборудование, инструменты). – 2025. – Т. 27, № 3. – С. 122–136. – DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2025-27.3-122-136.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B36"><label>36.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wong A. Modelling the stability and transformation kinetics of retained austenite in steels. Materials Science and Technology, 2022, vol. 38 (11), pp. 676–688. DOI: 10.1080/02670836.2022.2063539.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wong A. Modelling the stability and transformation kinetics of retained austenite in steels // Materials Science and Technology. – 2022. – Vol. 38 (11). – P. 676–688. – DOI: 10.1080/02670836.2022.2063539.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B37"><label>37.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Xiong X.C., Chen B., Huang M.X., Wang J.F., Wang L. The effect of morphology on the stability of retained austenite in a quenched and partitioned steel. Scripta Materialia, 2013, vol. 68 (5), pp. 321–324. DOI: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2012.11.003.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">The effect of morphology on the stability of retained austenite in a quenched and partitioned steel / X.C. Xiong, B. Chen, M.X. Huang, J.F. Wang, L. Wang // Scripta Materialia. – 2013. – Vol. 68 (5). – P. 321–324. – DOI: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2012.11.003.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B38"><label>38.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sidoroff C., Perez M., Dierickx P., Girodin D. Advantages and shortcomings of retained austenite in bearing steels: a review. Bearing Steel Technologies: 10th Volume, Advances in Steel Technologies for Rolling Bearings, ASTM International, 2014, pp. 1–37. DOI: 10.1520/STP158020140081.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Advantages and shortcomings of retained austenite in bearing steels: a review / C. Sidoroff, M. Perez, P. Dierickx, D. Girodin // Bearing Steel Technologies: 10th Volume, Advances in Steel Technologies for Rolling Bearings. – ASTM International, 2014. – P. 1–37. – DOI: 10.1520/STP158020140081.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B39"><label>39.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Shen Y., Moghadam S.M., Sadeghi F., Paulson K., Trice R.W. Effect of retained austenite –Compressive residual stresses on rolling contact fatigue life of carburized AISI 8620 steel. International Journal of Fatigue, 2015, vol. 75, pp. 135–144. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2015.02.017.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Effect of retained austenite – Compressive residual stresses on rolling contact fatigue life of carburized AISI 8620 steel / Y. Shen, S.M. Moghadam, F. Sadeghi, K. Paulson, R.W. Trice // International Journal of Fatigue. – 2012. – Vol. 75. – P. 135–144. – DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2015.02.017.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B40"><label>40.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Evans M.H. An updated review: white etching cracks (WECs) and axial cracks in wind turbine gearbox bearings. Materials Science and Technology, 2016, vol. 32 (11), pp. 1133–1169. DOI: 10.1080/02670836.2015.1133022.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Evans M.H. An updated review: white etching cracks (WECs) and axial cracks in wind turbine gearbox bearings // Materials Science and Technology. – 2016. – Vol. 32 (11). – P. 1133–1169. – DOI: 10.1080/02670836.2015.1133022.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B41"><label>41.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kumar S., Singh S.B. Quantification of retained austenite in low-carbon steels. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 2023, vol. 54 (11), pp. 4283–4294. DOI: 10.1007/s11661-023-07162-1.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kumar S., Singh S.B. Quantification of retained austenite in low-carbon steels // Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A. – 2023. – Vol. 54 (11). – P. 4283–4294. – DOI: 10.1007/s11661-023-07162-1.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B42"><label>42.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ionescu L.G., Pantawane M.V., Tănase C., Sichim R.V., Dascălu C.A., Ghiban B. Evaluation of retained austenite in carburized bearing steel using magneto-inductive method. Crystals, 2023, vol. 13 (8), p. 1173. DOI: 10.3390/cryst13081173.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Evaluation of retained austenite in carburized bearing steel using magneto-inductive method / L.G. Ionescu, M.V. Pantawane, C. Tanase, R.V. Sichim, C.A. Dascalu, B. Ghiban // Crystals. – 2023. – Vol. 13 (8). – P. 1173. – DOI: 10.3390/cryst13081173.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B43"><label>43.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zhu Z., Liang Y. Prediction of residual stress of carburized steel based on machine learning. Applied Sciences, 2020, vol. 10 (21), p. 7759. DOI: 10.3390/app10217759.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Zhu Z., Liang Y. Prediction of residual stress of carburized steel based on machine learning // Applied Sciences. – 2020. – Vol. 10 (21). – P. 7759. – DOI: 10.3390/app10217759.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B44"><label>44.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wei S., Wang G., Zhao X., Zhang X., Rong Y. Experimental study on vacuum carburizing process for low-carbon alloy steel. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2014, vol. 23 (2), pp. 545–550. DOI: 10.1007/s11665-013-0762-1.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Experimental study on vacuum carburizing process for low-carbon alloy steel / S. Wei, G. Wang, X. Zhao, X. Zhang, Y. Rong // Journal of materials engineering and performance. – 2014. – Vol. 23 (2). – P. 545–550. – DOI: 10.1007/s11665-013-0762-1.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B45"><label>45.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Muñoz-Rodenas J., García-Sevilla F., Coello-Sobrino J., Martínez-Martínez A., Miguel-Eguía V. Effectiveness of machine-learning and deep-learning strategies for the classification of heat treatments applied to low-carbon steels based on microstructural analysis. Applied Sciences, 2023, vol. 13, p. 3479. DOI: 10.3390/app13063479.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Effectiveness of machine-learning and deep-learning strategies for the classification of heat treatments applied to low-carbon steels based on microstructural analysis / J. Muñoz-Rodenas, F. García-Sevilla, J. Coello-Sobrino, A. Martínez-Martínez, V. Miguel-Eguía // Applied Sciences. – 2023. – Vol. 13. – P. 3479. – DOI: 10.3390/app13063479.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B46"><label>46.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Jovičević-Klug P., Podgornik B. Review on the effect of deep cryogenic treatment of metallic materials in automotive applications. Metals, 2020, vol. 10 (4), p. 434. DOI: 10.3390/met10040434.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Jovicevic-Klug P., Podgornik B. Review on the effect of deep cryogenic treatment of metallic materials in automotive applications // Metals. – 2020. – Vol. 10 (4). – P. 434. – DOI: 10.3390/met10040434.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B47"><label>47.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Yan Y., Liu K., Luo Z., Wang M., Wang X. Effect of cryogenic treatment on microstructure, mechanical properties and distortion of carburized gear steels. Metals, 2021, vol. 11, p. 1940. DOI: 10.3390/met11121940.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Effect of cryogenic treatment on microstructure, mechanical properties and distortion of carburized gear steels / Y. Yan, K. Liu, Z. Luo, M. Wang, X. Wang // Metals. – 2021. – Vol. 11. – P. 1940. – DOI: 10.3390/met11121940.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B48"><label>48.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ďurica J., Ptačinová J., Dománková M., Čaplovič L., Čaplovičová M., Hrušovská L., Malovcová V., Jurči P. Changes in microstructure of ledeburitic tool steel due to vacuum austenitizing and quenching, sub-zero treatments at – 140°C and tempering. Vacuum, 2019, vol. 170, p. 108977. DOI: 10.1016/j.vacuum.2019.10897.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Changes in microstructure of ledeburitic tool steel due to vacuum austenitizing and quenching, sub-zero treatments at – 140°C and tempering / J. Durica, J. Ptacinová, M. Dománková, L. Caplovic, M. Caplovicová, L. Hrušovská, V. Malovcová, P. Jurci // Vacuum. – 2019. – Vol. 170. – P. 108977. – DOI: 10.1016/j.vacuum.2019.10897.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B49"><label>49.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">ASTM E975-13. Standard Practice for X-Ray Determination of Retained Austenite in Steel with Near Random Crystallographic Orientation. West Conshohocken, PA, USA, ASTM International, 2013.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">ASTM E975-13. Standard Practice for X-Ray Determination of Retained Austenite in Steel with Near Random Crystallographic Orientation. – West Conshohocken, PA, USA: ASTM International, 2013.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B50"><label>50.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zhao J., Zhao X., Zhao X., Dong C., Kang S. Effects of nucleation site and morphology of carbide-free bainite on microstructures and properties of bainite/martensite multi-phase steels. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2019, vol. 744, pp. 86–93. DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2018.11.060.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Effects of nucleation site and morphology of carbide-free bainite on microstructures and properties of bainite/martensite multi-phase steels / J. Zhao, X. Zhao, X. Zhao, C. Dong, S. Kang // Materials Science and Engineering: A. – 2019. – Vol. 744. – P. 86–93. – DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2018.11.060.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B51"><label>51.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wingens T. Techniques for determining retained austenite. AM&amp;P Technical Articles, 2022, vol. 180, pp. 60–64. DOI: 10.31399/asm.amp.2022-05.p060.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wingens T. Techniques for determining retained austenite // AM&amp;P Technical Articles. – 2022. – Vol. 180. – P. 60–64. – DOI: 10.31399/asm.amp.2022-05.p060.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B52"><label>52.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Koistinen D., Marburger R. A general equation prescribing the extent of the austenite-martensite transformation in pure iron-carbon alloys and plain carbon steels. Acta Metallurgica, 1959, vol. 7, pp. 59–60. DOI: 10.1016/0001-6160(59)90170-1.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Koistinen D., Marburger R. A general equation prescribing the extent of the austenite-martensite transformation in pure iron-carbon alloys and plain carbon steels // Acta Metallurgica. – 1959. – Vol. 7. – P. 59–60. – DOI: 10.1016/0001-6160(59)90170-1.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B53"><label>53.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Varyukhin V.N., Pashinskaya E.G., Zavdoveev A.V., Burkhovetskii V.V. Vozmozhnosti metoda difraktsii obratno-rasseyannykh elektronov dlya analiza struktury deformirovannykh materialov [Possibilities of the Electron Backscatter Diffraction Method for Analysis of the Structure of Deformed Materials]. Kyiv, Naukova Dumka Publ., 2014. 102 p. DOI: 10.13140/2.1.5016.6720.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Возможности метода дифракции обратно-рассеянных электронов для анализа структуры деформированных материалов / В.Н. Варюхин, Е.Г. Пашинская, А.В. Завдовеев, В.В. Бурховецкий. – Киев: Наукова думка, 2014. – 102 с. – DOI: 10.13140/2.1.5016.6720.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B54"><label>54.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Doddapaneni S., Kumar S., Sharma S., Shankar G., Shettar M., Kumar N., Aroor G., Ahmad S.M. Advancements in EBSD techniques: a comprehensive review on characterization of composites and metals, sample preparation, and operational parameters. Journal of Composites Science, 2025, vol. 9 (3), p. 132. DOI: 10.3390/jcs9030132.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Advancements in EBSD techniques: a comprehensive review on characterization of composites and metals, sample preparation, and operational parameters / S. Doddapaneni, S. Kumar, S. Sharma, G. Shankar, M. Shettar, N. Kumar, G. Aroor, S.M. Ahmad // Journal of Composites Science. – 2025. – Vol. 9 (3). – P. 132. – DOI: 10.3390/jcs9030132.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B55"><label>55.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kalsi N.S., Sehgal R., Sharma V.S. Cryogenic treatment of tool materials: a review. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 2010, vol. 25 (10), pp. 1077–1100. DOI: 10.1080/10426911003720862.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kalsi N.S., Sehgal R., Sharma V.S. Cryogenic treatment of tool materials: a review // Materials and Manufacturing Processes. – 2010. – Vol. 25 (10). – P. 1077–1100. – DOI: 10.1080/10426911003720862.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B56"><label>56.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Singla A.K., Singh J., Sharma V.S. Processing of materials at cryogenic temperature and its implications in manufacturing: a review. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 2018, vol. 33 (15), pp. 1603–1640. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2018.1424908.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Singla A.K., Vishal J., Sharma V.S. Processing of materials at cryogenic temperature and its implications in manufacturing: a review // Materials and Manufacturing Processes. – 2018. – Vol. 33 (15). – P. 1603–1640. – DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2018.1424908.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B57"><label>57.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Reitz W., Pendray J. Cryoprocessing of materials: a review of current status. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 2001, vol. 16 (6), pp. 829–840. DOI: 10.1081/AMP-100108702.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Reitz W., Pendray J. Cryoprocessing of materials: a review of current status // Materials and Manufacturing Processes. – 2001. – Vol. 16 (6). – P. 829–840. – DOI: 10.1081/AMP-100108702.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B58"><label>58.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Jurči P., Dlouhý I. Cryogenic treatment of martensitic steels: microstructural fundamentals and implications for mechanical properties and wear and corrosion performance. Materials, 2024, vol. 17, p. 548. DOI: 10.3390/ma1703054.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Jurci P., Dlouhý I. Cryogenic treatment of martensitic steels: microstructural fundamentals and implications for mechanical properties and wear and corrosion performance // Materials. – 2024. – Vol. 17. – P. 548. – DOI: 10.3390/ma1703054.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B59"><label>59.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Senthilkumar D., Rajendran I. A research review on deep cryogenic treatment of steels. International Journal of Materials and Structural Integrity, 2014, vol. 8, pp. 169–184. DOI: 10.1504/IJMSI.2014.064784.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Senthilkumar D., Rajendran I. A research review on deep cryogenic treatment of steels // International Journal of Materials and Structural Integrity. – 2014. – Vol. 8. – P. 169–184. – DOI: 10.1504/IJMSI.2014.064784.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list></back></article>
