Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 3 EDITORIAL COUNCIL EDITORIAL BOARD EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Anatoliy A. Bataev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Rector, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation DEPUTIES EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Vladimir V. Ivancivsky, D.Sc. (Engineering), Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Machinery Design, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Vadim Y. Skeeba, Ph.D. (Engineering), Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Machinery Design, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Editor of the English translation: Elena A. Lozhkina, Ph.D. (Engineering), Department of Material Science in Mechanical Engineering, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation The journal is issued since 1999 Publication frequency – 4 numbers a year Data on the journal are published in «Ulrich's Periodical Directory» Journal “Obrabotka Metallov” (“Metal Working and Material Science”) has been Indexed in Clarivate Analytics Services. Novosibirsk State Technical University, Prospekt K. Marksa, 20, Novosibirsk, 630073, Russia Tel.: +7 (383) 346-17-75 http://journals.nstu.ru/obrabotka_metallov E-mail: metal_working@mail.ru; metal_working@corp.nstu.ru Journal “Obrabotka Metallov – Metal Working and Material Science” is indexed in the world's largest abstracting bibliographic and scientometric databases Web of Science and Scopus. Journal “Obrabotka Metallov” (“Metal Working & Material Science”) has entered into an electronic licensing relationship with EBSCO Publishing, the world's leading aggregator of full text journals, magazines and eBooks. The full text of JOURNAL can be found in the EBSCOhost™ databases.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 4 EDITORIAL COUNCIL EDITORIAL COUNCIL CHAIRMAN: Nikolai V. Pustovoy, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, President, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation MEMBERS: The Federative Republic of Brazil: Alberto Moreira Jorge Junior, Dr.-Ing., Full Professor; Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos The Federal Republic of Germany: Moniko Greif, Dr.-Ing., Professor, Hochschule RheinMain University of Applied Sciences, Russelsheim Florian Nürnberger, Dr.-Ing., Chief Engineer and Head of the Department “Technology of Materials”, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen; Thomas Hassel, Dr.-Ing., Head of Underwater Technology Center Hanover, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen The Spain: Andrey L. Chuvilin, Ph.D. (Physics and Mathematics), Ikerbasque Research Professor, Head of Electron Microscopy Laboratory “CIC nanoGUNE”, San Sebastian The Republic of Belarus: Fyodor I. Panteleenko, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, First Vice-Rector, Corresponding Member of National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Belarusian National Technical University, Minsk The Ukraine: Sergiy V. Kovalevskyy, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Vice Rector for Research and Academic Aff airs, Donbass State Engineering Academy, Kramatorsk The Russian Federation: Vladimir G. Atapin, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Victor P. Balkov, Deputy general director, Research and Development Tooling Institute “VNIIINSTRUMENT”, Moscow; Vladimir A. Bataev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Vladimir G. Burov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Aleksandr N. Korotkov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Kuzbass State Technical University, Kemerovo; Dmitry V. Lobanov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Associate Professor, I.N. Ulianov Chuvash State University, Cheboksary; Aleksey V. Makarov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Corresponding Member of RAS, Head of division, Head of laboratory (Laboratory of Mechanical Properties) M.N. Miheev Institute of Metal Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences (Ural Branch), Yekaterinburg; Aleksandr G. Ovcharenko, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Biysk Technological Institute, Biysk; Yuriy N. Saraev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, V.P. Larionov Institute of the Physical-Technical Problems of the North of the Siberian Branch of the RAS, Yakutsk; Alexander S. Yanyushkin, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, I.N. Ulianov Chuvash State University, Cheboksary
Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 5 CONTENTS OBRABOTKAMETALLOV TECHNOLOGY Gaikwad V., Chinchanikar S. Investigations on ultrasonic vibration-assisted friction stir welded AA7075 joints: Mechanical properties and fracture analysis........................................................................................................................ 6 Sirota V.V., Zaitsev S.V., Limarenko M.V., Prokhorenkov D.S., Lebedev M.S., Churikov A.S., Dan'shin A.L. Preparation of coatings with high infrared emissivity.......................................................................................................... 23 Babaev A.S., Kozlov V.N., Semenov A.R., Shevchuk A.S., Ovcharenko V.A., Sudarev E.A. Investigation of cutting forces and machinability during milling of corrosion-resistant powder steel produced by laser metal deposition............. 38 Dolgova S.V., Malikov A.G., Golyshev A.A., Nikulina A.A. The eff ect of laser surfacing modes on the geometrical characteristics of the single laser tracks............................................................................................................................... 57 Karlina Y.I., Kononenko R.V., Popov M.A., Deryugin F.F., Byankin V.E. Assessment of welding engineering properties of basic type electrode coatings of diff erent electrode manufacturers for welding of pipe parts and assemblies of heat exchange surfaces of boiler units............................................................................................................................. 71 Yanpolskiy V.V., Ivanova M.V., Nasonova A.A., Yanyushkin A.S. Determination of the rate of electrochemical dissolution of U10A steel under ECM conditions with a stationary cathode-tool............................................................... 95 EQUIPMENT. INSTRUMENTS Zakovorotny V.L., Gvindjiliya V.E. The study of vibration disturbance mapping in the geometry of the surface formed by turning............................................................................................................................................................................. 107 Gasanov B.G., Konko N.A., Baev S.S. Study of the kinetics of forming of spherical sliding bearing parts made of corrosion-resistant steels by die forging of porous blanks............................................................................................... 127 Gvindjiliya V.E., Fominov E.V., Moiseev D.V., Gamaleeva E.I. Infl uence of dynamic characteristics of the turning process on the workpiece surface roughness........................................................................................................................ 143 Lobanov D.V., Skeeba V.Yu., Golyushov I.S., Smirnov V.M., Zverev E.A. Design simulation of modular abrasive tool........................................................................................................................................................................................ 158 MATERIAL SCIENCE EroshenkoA.Yu., Legostaeva E.V., Glukhov I.A., Uvarkin P.V., TolmachevA.I., Sharkeev Yu.P. Thermal stability of extruded Mg-Y-Nd alloy structure.................................................................................................................................. 174 Bazaleeva K.O., Safarova D.E., Ponkratova Yu.Yu., Lugovoi M.E., Tsvetkova E.V., Alekseev A.V., Zhelezni M.V., Logachev I.A., Baskov F.A. The infl uence of technological parameters of the laser engineered net shaping process on the quality of the formed object from titanium alloy VT23......................................................... 186 Efi movich I.A., Zolotukhin I.S. Oxidation temperatures of WC-Co cemented tungsten carbides....................................... 199 Pribytkov G.A., Baranovskiy A.V., Firsina I.A., Akimov K.O., Krivopalov V.P. Study of Fe-matrix composites with carbide strengthening, formed by sintering of iron titanides and carbon mechanically activated mixtures................ 212 EDITORIALMATERIALS 224 FOUNDERS MATERIALS 235 CONTENTS
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 technology The effect of laser surfacing modes on the geometrical characteristics of the single laser tracks Svetlana Dolgova 1, a, Alexandr Malikov 2, b, Alexander Golyshev 2, c , Aelita Nikulina 3, d, * 1 Novosibirsk semiconductor device plant Vostok, 60 Dachnaya st., Novosibirsk, 630082, Russian Federation 2 Khristianovich Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics SB RAS, 4/1 Institutskaya str., Novosibirsk, 630090, Russian Federation 3 Novosibirsk State Technical University, 20 Prospekt K. Marksa, Novosibirsk, 630073, Russian Federation a https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3918-273X, svetlanadolgova99@gmail.com; b https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1268-8546, smalik707@yandex.ru; c https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4243-0602, alexgol@itam.nsc.ru; d https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9249-2273, a.nikulina@corp.nstu.ru Obrabotka metallov - Metal Working and Material Science Journal homepage: http://journals.nstu.ru/obrabotka_metallov Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science. 2024 vol. 26 no. 2 pp. 57–70 ISSN: 1994-6309 (print) / 2541-819X (online) DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2024-26.2-57-70 ART I CLE I NFO Article history: Received: 15 March 2024 Revised: 13 April 2024 Accepted: 17 April 2024 Available online: 15 June 2024 Keywords: Additive technologies, Fiber laser, Single tracks, Optimization, Macrostructure, Austenitic steel 316L Funding The work was carried out within the framework of the state assignment of the ITAM SB RAS. ABSTRACT Introduction. Laser surfacing is one of the leading trends in the field of additive technologies, which consists in layer-by-layer build of material using a laser as an energy source. To obtain a high-quality product, it is necessary to select the optimal building parameters correctly. The problem is that such optimization is necessary for all equipment, since minor differences in its characteristics can make significant changes in the parameters of layerby-layer build. In order to determine the optimal build mode, it is enough to analyze the effect of various equipment parameters on the characteristics of single tracks. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to determine the most important parameters of laser radiation that affect the surfacing process and the optimal mode for building a single track of chromium-nickel steel. The work investigated single tracks obtained by laser surfacing of powder from austenitic chromium-nickel steel AISI 316L. The optimization factors included such characteristics as laser power, beam speed, flow rate of supplied powder and laser spot size. The wavelength of laser radiation was 1.07 μm. Research methods. To determine the quality and geometric dimensions of single tracks, the macrostructure of cross sections of specimens was studied using metallography and scanning electron microscopy methods. Results and discussion. It is established that the optimal mode for growing single tracks of steel AISI 316L is characterized by a laser radiation power of 1,250 W and a scanning speed of 25 mm/s. In this case, the optimal powder consumption rate is 12 g/min, and the laser spot size is 4.1 mm. The work shows that the powder consumption and laser spot size have the greatest influence on the coefficient of effective use of powder material. By changing it, the surfacing performance can be increased by 10–15 %. For citation: Dolgova S.V., MalikovA.G., GolyshevA.A., Nikulina A.A. The effect of laser surfacing modes on the geometrical characteristics of the single laser tracks. Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science, 2024, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 57–70. DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2024-26.2-57-70. (In Russian). ______ * Corresponding author Nikulina Aelita A., D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor Novosibirsk State Technical University, 20 Prospekt K. Marksa, 630073, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Tel.: +7 (383) 346-11-71, e-mail: a.nikulina@corp.nstu.ru Introduction Traditional steel preparation methods are still one of the most universal and basic ways for manufacturing products. However, the production of one type of finished product sometimes requires a huge number of parts with a preforming procedure and different ways of connecting it to each other. The use of additive technologies as a method of creating products has proven to be a promising way of direct manufacturing of metal parts of complex geometry with functional structure [1, 2]. This method can reduce waste and save raw materials. Also, many authors claim that due to the unique thermal conditions occurring during laser additive manufacturing, it is possible to regulate the chemical composition, influence metallurgy, obtain a certain microstructure and improve the mechanical properties of manufactured parts [3–5].
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV technology Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 At the moment, there are a huge number of techniques for layer-by-layer building of products, but one of the main methods of additive manufacturing is laser surfacing. The reason for this is the versatility, simplicity, and widespread use of the technology [6]. This technique allows obtaining parts with low surface roughness due to smaller laser beam size, smaller layer thickness and short step compared to other additive technologies. Also, this preparation method allows applying additional material on the finished product for the purpose of repair and restoration of the part [5–8]. Laser technology ensures the production of dense parts without oxidizing the surface during the building process due to the use of a protective gas environment and allows the use of several materials in one assembly (Functionally Gradient Material or FGM specimens) [9–13]. Nowadays there is a huge amount of research on various aspects of laser additive technologies and one of the most common topics is optimization of processing parameters. Precisely because of the correctly selected modes of layer-by-layer build-up it is possible to assess the presence of physical defects, which indicates the quality of the obtained products [5, 8], and allows to increase the efficiency of production [7]. The topic of parameter optimization has been dealt with by scientists using various research techniques. In [5], the authors selected modes of single-track formation for a fiber laser by enumerating the most used modes in the planning matrix. In study [14], the authors used regression analysis technique to determine the effect of coaxial nozzle fiber laser power, surfacing speed, and powder distribution in the feed jet on the generated tracks. They found that at constant laser power, the height and cross-sectional area decreased with increasing surfacing speed, while the height and cross-sectional area increased with increasing powder feed rate. At constant speeds and varying power, the cross-sectional area increases, and the powder distribution has no effect on the track geometry. Similar results were obtained by the authors of the paper [7] using the ANOVA (analysis of variance) technique. They concluded that different parameters affect the geometric dimensions of the track in different ways. The track height is mainly influenced by the surfacing speed and powder feed rate. The influence of power is about 1 %. However, in the track width study, power and scanning speed were the main influencing factors. In [15], the effect of different fiber laser modes on single track formation was also studied. The authors confirmed that increasing the powder feed rate negatively affects the bond quality between the surfaced track and the substrate, the laser travel speed negatively affects the cross-sectional area and positively affects the surfaced track width. The laser power has a significant effect on the height and width of the formed track, compared to the scanning speed and powder feed rate. Since different studies use different equipment and different materials, despite the identical technology of layer-by-layer surfacing, the results obtained may differ significantly. Thus, this topic is still relevant. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to determine the most important laser radiation parameters affecting the surfacing process and the optimal mode for obtaining high-quality single tracks from AISI 316L steel with the use of a fiber laser. Methods and materials Investigated material AISI 316L steel powder was used to investigate the influence of build-up modes on obtaining highquality single tracks. The average particle size was 15–45 μm. Surfacing of steel powder was carried out on a plate made of 0.12 C-18 Cr-10 Ni-Ti steel with dimensions of 50×50×5 mm. The chemical composition of the alloys used is presented in Table 1. Ta b l e 1 Chemical composition of the materials under study Material Chemical element, wt. % C Mn Si S P Ti Cr Ni Fe AISI 316L 0.025 0.84 0.68 0.015 0.01 0.71 18.69 8.84 Bal. 0.12 C-18 Cr-10 Ni-Ti 0.11 1.082 0.447 0.002 0.027 0.002 17.15 7.85 Bal.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 technology Equipment Surfacing was carried out by the direct laser deposition method. With this method, laser radiation is focused by means of a lens onto the substrate, forming a “bath” of melt. The powder mixture is supplied coaxially to the laser radiation through a coaxial nozzle. As the laser beam moves, the melt bath solidifies to form a deposited bead. Formation of single tracks was carried out on the equipment “Cladding and welding complex on the basis of a multi-axis arm and fiber laser” with the power of ytterbium laser 3 kW (produced by IPGphotonics) and wavelength of radiation 1.07 μm (Fig. 1). Argon was used as a carrier gas and as a protective medium during the growth process. The Olympus LEXT OLS 3000 optical microscope and Carl Zeiss EVO 50 XVP scanning electron microscope (core facility “Structure, mechanical and physical properties of materials” NSTU) were used to determine the size and quality of the formed tracks. Cross-sections of specimens for the study were prepared according to the standard grinding and polishing technique. Etching was performed using a chemical etchant of the composition HNO3 : HCl = 1 : 3 Experimental conditions Equipment parameters, energy density, scanning speed, gas flow rate and other parameters play an important role in determining microstructure features, part quality and process performance. Therefore, to determine the optimal modes of building a steel product by direct laser deposition, it is necessary to investigate the material behavior during the formation of single tracks. The choice of initial parameter values is based on literature data [16–23]. The range of values of the main parameters was as follows: laser power 1.000–1.500 W, scanning speed 15–35 mm/s, powder flow rate 12–36 g/min (feed disk speed 4–12 % respectively) and laser spot size 2.9–5.6 mm. Such parameters as powder flow rate and laser spot size were changed after determining the optimal power and scanning speed. Selection conditions In the additive manufacturing process, various surfacing defects may occur due to peculiarities of the study material, equipment parameters and growing modes. Therefore, to determine the optimal building mode, the geometric dimensions, wetting angle with the substrate, the presence of pores and cracks in the junction zone of the obtained single tracks and the substrate were analyzed. In this work, the ratio between the thickness and width of the surfaced layer equal to 1:3 is evaluated, since if this ratio is not met in the process of the solid formation interlayer pores may form [8, 24]. Also, in this paper the concept of effective build-up ratio is introduced – the coefficient of effective materials consumption, based on the ratio of the surfaced metal mass to the rate of powder consumption. This characteristic evaluates the loss of material during the surfacing process. Results and discussion Macrostructure and geometrical dimensions of the obtained tracks The geometric dimensions and the presence of defects in the zone of the surfaced layer at single tracks should be evaluated to determine the most suitable build-up mode for solid construction. Table 2 shows the geometric characteristics of the surfaced steel powder. The macrostructure of the cross sections of steel 316L is presented in Fig. 2–6. As one can see, with increasing speed, the height of the investigated tracks decreases, which further increases the width of the Fig. 1. Automated laser complex
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV technology Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 Ta b l e 2 Geometric dimensions of single tracks Power, W Speed, mm/s Consumption, % Beam diameter, mm Height, µm Width, µm Penetration depth, µm Contact angle, ° 1.000 15 8 2.9 825 1,177 579 38 1.000 25 8 2.9 540 1,285 552 132 1.000 35 8 2.9 402 1,100 431 117 1.250 15 8 2.9 935 1,305 738 43 1.250 25 8 2.9 620 1,213 571 47 1.250 35 8 2.9 445 1,202 534 143 1.500 15 8 2.9 790 1,485 1,286 33 1.500 25 8 2.9 540 1,527 1,089 117 1.500 35 8 2.9 397 1,312 969 77 1.250 25 4 2.9 245 1,642 872 155 1.250 25 12 2.9 765 1,197 485 67 1.250 25 4 4.1 305 1,567 655 130 1.250 25 4 5.6 345 1,775 552 134 a b c Fig. 2. Cross sections of tracks obtained at a power of 1,000 W, powder consumption 24 g/min, laser spot size 2.9 mm, speed 15 mm/s (a), 25 mm/s (b), 35 mm/s (c) a b c Fig. 3. Cross sections of tracks obtained at a power of 1.250 W, powder flow rate 24 g/min, laser spot size 2.9 mm, speed 15 mm/s (a), 25 mm/s (b), 35 mm/s (c) surfaced layer (Fig. 2–4). This can be explained by a decrease in linear energy consumption (formation of a smaller melt bath), and a decrease in powder mass flow rate per unit length at constant feed rate. Increasing the power similarly changed the geometrical dimensions of the track (Fig. 2–4).
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 technology a b c Fig. 4. Cross sections of tracks obtained at a power of 1.500 W, powder flow rate 24 g/min, laser spot size 2.9 mm, speed 15 mm/s (a), 25 mm/s (b), 35 mm/s (c) The wetting angle of the deposited layer with the substrate is one of the most important parameters determining the track homogeneity. In some specimens, at minimum speed values, a negative lateral angle was detected (Fig. 2, a; 3, a; 3, b; 4, a), which can cause delamination of the material from the substrate and the presence of interlayer pores. With increasing power and scanning speed, the wetting angle increased to the contact with the substrate boundary due to changes in the geometric dimensions of the track (Fig. 2–4). Also, the main geometric parameter necessary to identify the optimal growth mode is the depth of penetration. With increasing power, the depth of the melted area increases, but the opposite effect occurs with increasing scanning speed (Fig. 2–4). The maximum penetration depth (1.286 μm) corresponds to the highest power value with the minimum scanning speed (1.500 W and 15 mm/s). The reason for this is the large amount of power applied to the local melting point. This effect indicates that when using the maximum scanning speed, the laser power should also be a maximum. Based on the analysis of the obtained data, the power and build-up rate of 1,250 W and 25 mm/s were chosen as the parameters of the optimal mode, respectively, since neat tracks without large pores were formed in this mode, and minimal sparking was present in the surfacing process (Fig. 3, b). However, the condition described in [8] was not fulfilled because not all parameters were varied. Therefore, based on this mode at constant scanning power and speed, the effect of powder consumption and laser spot size on single tracks was further investigated. When using a powder feed rate of 12 g/min, a minimum track height was formed, since with an increase in this characteristic, the mass consumption of the powder increases (Fig. 5). However, when the laser spot size was increased, the track height increased (Fig. 6). With increasing scanning power, the depth of the molten substrate increases due to an increase in the amount of laser energy penetrating the substrate (Fig. 7). However, as the scanning speed increases, the a b c Fig. 5. Cross sections of tracks produced at a power of 1.250 W, speed 25 mm/s, laser spot size 2.9 mm, powder consumption 12 g/min (a), 24 g/min (b), 36 g/min (c)
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV technology Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 layer penetration depth decreases due to the decrease in the specific laser energy during the cladding process. Increasing the powder consumption and laser spot size decreases the layer penetration depth for a similar reason (Fig. 8, 9). In the specimens at the minimum scanning speed, as well as at high powder consumption, cracks caused by tensile stresses were formed at the interface between the melted material and the substrate (Fig. 10). a b c Fig. 6. Cross sections of tracks produced at a power of 1,250 W, speed 25 mm/s, powder consumption 12 g/min, laser spot size 2.9 mm (a), 4.1 mm (b), 5.6 mm (c) Fig. 8. Dependence of penetration depth on powder consumption at a power of 1.250 W, scanning speed 25 mm/s, laser spot size 2.9 mm Fig. 9. Effect of changing the size of the laser spot on the penetration depth at a power of 1.250 W, speed 25 mm/s, powder flow rate 12 g/min Fig. 7. Change in penetration depth with varying power and build-up speed, laser spot size 2.9 mm, powder consumption 24 g/min
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 technology a b Fig. 10. Presence of cracks in the fused layer: a – power 1.000 W, scanning speed 15 mm/s, powder flow rate 24 g/min; b – power 1.250 W, speed 15 mm/s, powder flow rate 24 g/min Coefficient of effective materials consumption Determination of the coefficient of useful consumption of materials was carried out according to the equation [25]: = u m K P , where m is the mass of the surfaced layer determined by the volume of surfaced material per minute, g/min; P is the powder consumption in the build-up process, g/min. The mass of the surfaced layer was determined by the cross-sectional area of the obtained tracks. The obtained values are presented in Table 3. The average coefficient of effective materials consumption in the process of direct laser deposition was 20–23 %. A similar result was obtained in [26]. Analyzing Fig. 11, we can conclude that with increasing the speed and power of laser radiation, the powder mass loss during the build-up process changes insignificantly, thus indicating the absence of influence of these two parameters on the build-up performance. Increasing the powder flow rate increases the material consumption ratio (Fig. 12) due to the interaction of more particles with each other. However, changing the laser beam diameter during the growing process showed a significant increase in the coefficient of useful consumption (Fig. 13). This is explained by the increase in the spot diameter on the material. Ta b l e 3 Surfacing efficiency coefficient Power, W Speed, mm/s Powder consumption, % Beam diameter, mm Coefficient, % 1.000 15 8 2.9 21.1 1.000 25 8 2.9 21.4 1.000 35 8 2.9 20 1.250 15 8 2.9 24.8 1.250 25 8 2.9 26.5 1.250 35 8 2.9 24.6 1.500 15 8 2.9 23.3 1.500 25 8 2.9 23.7 1.500 35 8 2.9 21.9 1.250 25 4 2.9 24.6 1.250 25 12 2.9 28.5 1.250 25 4 4.1 32.2 1.250 25 4 5.6 43.1
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV technology Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 Fig. 11. Effect of power changes on the coefficient of useful material consumption: beam diameter 2.9 mm, powder flow rate 24 g/min Fig. 12. Effect of changes in powder consumption on the coefficient of useful material consumption; power 1.250 W, speed 25 mm/s, beam diameter 2.9 mm Fig. 13. Influence of the laser beam diameter on the coefficient of useful material consumption; power 1.250 W, speed 25 mm/s, powder flow rate 12 g/min Conclusion The effect of deposition parameters on the geometric dimensions of single tracks from austenitic steel 316L using a fiber laser is investigated in this work. During the study, it was confirmed that with increasing scanning speed and laser power there is a decrease in the height of a single track with an increase in its width. Based on the analysis of geometrical dimensions, wetting angle with the substrate, presence of pores and cracks in the zone of connection between the obtained single tracks and the substrate, the optimal growth mode is determined, laser power and scanning speed for which were 1,250 W and 25 mm/s, respectively. When the laser power increases, active sparking occurs, which is accompanied by an increase in the penetration depth and an increase in surface roughness. Changing the parameters of powder flow rate and laser beam diameter results in single tracks characterized by lower roughness and complete wetting of the surface. The optimal powder flow rate is noted at a disk rotation speed of 4 % (respectively, the powder flow rate is 12 g/min). The beam diameter, at which the characteristics of single tracks are optimal, is 4.1 mm. The productivity of direct laser deposition in this work was about 20–23 %. It is found that such characteristics as powder flow rate and laser beam diameter have the greatest influence on the coefficient of effective materials consumption. Changing these parameters allows increasing the productivity by 10–15 %. References 1. Gadagi B., Lekurwale R. A review on advances in 3D metal printing. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2021, vol. 45, pp. 277–283. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.10.436.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 technology 2. Svetlizky D., Das M., Zheng B., Vyatskikh A.L., Bose S., Bandyopadhyay A., Schoenung J.M., Lavernia E.J., Eliaz N. Directed energy deposition (DED) additive manufacturing: Physical characteristics, defects, challenges and applications. Materials Today, 2021, vol. 49, pp. 271–295. DOI: 10.1016/j.mattod.2021.03.020. 3. Saeidi K., Gao X., Zhong Y., Shen Z.J. Hardened austenite steel with columnar sub-grain structure formed by laser melting. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2015, vol. 625, pp. 221–229. DOI: 10.1016/j. msea.2014.12.018. 4. Bartolomeu F., Buciumeanu M., Pinto E., Alves N., Carvalho O., Silva F.S., Miranda G. 316L stainless steel mechanical and tribological behavior – A comparison between selective laser melting, hot pressing and conventional casting. Additive Manufacturing, 2017, vol. 16, pp. 81–89. DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2017.05.007. 5. Alvarez P., Montealegre M.Á., Pulido-Jiménez J.F., Arrizubieta J.I. Analysis of the process parameter influence in laser cladding of 316L stainless steel. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 2018, vol. 2 (3), p. 55. DOI: 10.3390/jmmp2030055. 6. Pinkerton A.J. Lasers in additive manufacturing. Optics & Laser Technology, 2016, vol. 78, pp. 25–32. DOI: 10.1016/j.optlastec.2015.09.025. 7. Goodarzi D.M., Pekkarinen J., Salminen A. Analysis of laser cladding process parameter influence on the clad bead geometry. Welding in the World, 2017, vol. 61 (5), pp. 883–891. DOI: 10.1007/s40194-017-0495-0. 8. Dutta B. Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Technology. Encyclopedia of Materials: Metals and Alloys, 2022, vol. 3, pp. 66–84. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-819726-4.00035-1. 9. Shah K., Izhar ul Haq, Khan A., Shah Sh.A., Khan M., Pinkerton A.J. Parametric study of development of Inconel-steel functionally graded materials by laser direct metal deposition. Materials & Design, 2014, vol. 54, pp. 531–538. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2013.08.079. 10. Carroll B.E., Otis R.A., Borgonia J.P., Suh J., Dillon R.P., ShapiroA.A., Hofmann D.C., Liu Z.-K., BeeseA.M. Functionally graded material of 304L stainless steel and Inconel 625 fabricated by directed energy deposition: Characterization and thermodynamic modeling. Acta Materialia, 2016, vol. 108, pp. 46–54. DOI: 10.1016/j. actamat.2016.02.019. 11. Wu D., Liang X., Li Q., Jiang L. Laser rapid manufacturing of stainless steel 316L/Inconel718 functionally graded materials: microstructure evolution and mechanical properties. International Journal of Optics, 2010, vol. 2010, p. 802385. DOI: 10.1155/2010/802385. 12. Chen B., Su Y., Xie Zh., Tan C., Feng J. Development and characterization of 316L/Inconel 625 functionally graded material fabricated by laser direct metal deposition. Optics & Laser Technology, 2020, vol. 123, p. 105916. DOI: 10.1016/j.optlastec.2019.105916. 13. Mei X., Wang X., Peng Y., Gu H., Zhong G., Sh Y. Interfacial characterization and mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel/inconel 718 manufactured by selective laser melting. Material Science and Engineering: A, 2019, vol. 758, pp. 185–191. DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2019.05.011. 14. El Cheikh H., Courant B., Branchu S., Hascoët J.-Y., Guillén R. Analysis and prediction of single laser tracks geometrical characteristics in coaxial laser cladding process. Optics and Laser in Engineering, 2012, vol. 50 (3), pp. 413–422. DOI: 10.1016/j.optlaseng.2011.10.014. 15. Zhao Y., Guan Ch., Chen L., Sun J., Yu T. Effect of process parameters on the cladding track geometry fabricated by laser cladding. Optik, 2020, vol. 223, p. 165447. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijleo.2020.165447. 16. Saboori A., Piscopo G., Lai M., Salmi A., Biamino S. An investigation on the effect of deposition pattern on the microstructure, mechanical properties and residual stress of 316L produced by Directed Energy Deposition. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2020, vol. 780, p. 39179. DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2020.139179. 17. Balit Y., Joly L.-R., Szmytka F., Durbecq S., Charkaluk E., Constantinescu A. Self-heating behavior during cyclic loadings of 316L stainless steel specimens manufactured or repaired by Directed Energy Deposition. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2020, vol. 786, p. 139476. DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2020.139476. 18. Margerit P., Weisz-Patrault D., Ravi-Chandar K., Constantinescu A. Tensile and ductile fracture properties of as-printed 316L stainless steel thin walls obtained by directed energy deposition. Additive Manufacturing, 2021, vol. 37, p. 101664. DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101664. 19. Azinpour E., Darabi R., Sa J.C. de, Santos A., Hodek J., Dzugan J. Fracture analysis in directed energy deposition (DED) manufactured 316L stainless steel using a phase-field approach. Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, 2020, vol. 177, p. 103417. DOI: 10.1016/j.finel.2020.103417. 20. Feenstra D.R., Cruz V., Gao X., Molotnikov A., Birbilis N. Effect of build height on the properties of large format stainless steel 316L fabricated via directed energy deposition. Additive Manufacturing, 2020, vol. 34, p. 101205. DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101205.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV technology Vol. 26 No. 2 2024 21. Hwa Y., Kumai Ch.S., Devine Th.M., Yang N., Yee J.K., Hardwick R., Burgmann K. Microstructural banding of directed energy deposition-additively manufactured 316L stainless steel. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 2021, vol. 69, pp. 96–105. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmst.2020.08.022. 22. Tan Zh.E., Lye Pang J.H., Kaminski J., Pepin H. Characterisation of porosity, density, and microstructure of directed energy deposited stainless steel AISI 316L. Additive Manufacturing, 2019, vol. 25, pp. 286–296. DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2018.11.014. 23. Mukherjee M. Effect of build geometry and orientation on microstructure and properties of additively manufactured 316L stainless steel by laser metal deposition. Materialia, 2019, vol. 7, p. 100359. DOI: 10.1016/j. mtla.2019.100359. 24. Dutta B., Babu S., Jared B.H. Science, technology and applications of metals in additive manufacturing. Elsevier, 2019. 343 p. ISBN 978-0-12-816634-5. DOI: 10.1016/C2017-0-04707-9. 25. Taran V.D., ed. Spravochnik po spetsial’nym rabotam: svarochnye raboty v stroitel’stve. V 2 ch. Ch. 1 [Handbook of Special Works: Welding work in construction. In 2 pt. Pt. 2]. 2nd ed. Moscow, Stroiizdat Publ., 1971. 415 p. 26. Zavalov Yu.N., Dubrov A.V., Rodin P.S., Antonov A.N., Makarova E.S., Stenkin S.V., Dubrov V.D. [The influence of technological parameters on productivity in the manufacture of metal parts using direct laser growing]. Additivnye tekhnologii: nastoyashchee i budushchee [Additive technologies: the present and the future]. Materials of V International conference. Moscow, VIAM Publ., 2019, pp. 121–130. (In Russian). Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. 2024 The Authors. Published by Novosibirsk State Technical University. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).
RkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy MTk0ODM1