Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 3 EDITORIAL COUNCIL EDITORIAL BOARD EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Anatoliy A. Bataev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Rector, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation DEPUTIES EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Vladimir V. Ivancivsky, D.Sc. (Engineering), Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Machinery Design, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Vadim Y. Skeeba, Ph.D. (Engineering), Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Machinery Design, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Editor of the English translation: Elena A. Lozhkina, Ph.D. (Engineering), Department of Material Science in Mechanical Engineering, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation The journal is issued since 1999 Publication frequency – 4 numbers a year Data on the journal are published in «Ulrich's Periodical Directory» Journal “Obrabotka Metallov” (“Metal Working and Material Science”) has been Indexed in Clarivate Analytics Services. Novosibirsk State Technical University, Prospekt K. Marksa, 20, Novosibirsk, 630073, Russia Tel.: +7 (383) 346-17-75 http://journals.nstu.ru/obrabotka_metallov E-mail: metal_working@mail.ru; metal_working@corp.nstu.ru Journal “Obrabotka Metallov – Metal Working and Material Science” is indexed in the world's largest abstracting bibliographic and scientometric databases Web of Science and Scopus. Journal “Obrabotka Metallov” (“Metal Working & Material Science”) has entered into an electronic licensing relationship with EBSCO Publishing, the world's leading aggregator of full text journals, magazines and eBooks. The full text of JOURNAL can be found in the EBSCOhost™ databases.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 4 EDITORIAL COUNCIL EDITORIAL COUNCIL CHAIRMAN: Nikolai V. Pustovoy, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, President, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation MEMBERS: The Federative Republic of Brazil: Alberto Moreira Jorge Junior, Dr.-Ing., Full Professor; Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos The Federal Republic of Germany: Moniko Greif, Dr.-Ing., Professor, Hochschule RheinMain University of Applied Sciences, Russelsheim Florian Nürnberger, Dr.-Ing., Chief Engineer and Head of the Department “Technology of Materials”, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen; Thomas Hassel, Dr.-Ing., Head of Underwater Technology Center Hanover, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen The Spain: Andrey L. Chuvilin, Ph.D. (Physics and Mathematics), Ikerbasque Research Professor, Head of Electron Microscopy Laboratory “CIC nanoGUNE”, San Sebastian The Republic of Belarus: Fyodor I. Panteleenko, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, First Vice-Rector, Corresponding Member of National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Belarusian National Technical University, Minsk The Ukraine: Sergiy V. Kovalevskyy, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Vice Rector for Research and Academic Aff airs, Donbass State Engineering Academy, Kramatorsk The Russian Federation: Vladimir G. Atapin, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Victor P. Balkov, Deputy general director, Research and Development Tooling Institute “VNIIINSTRUMENT”, Moscow; Vladimir A. Bataev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Vladimir G. Burov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Aleksandr N. Korotkov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Kuzbass State Technical University, Kemerovo; Dmitry V. Lobanov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Associate Professor, I.N. Ulianov Chuvash State University, Cheboksary; Aleksey V. Makarov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Corresponding Member of RAS, Head of division, Head of laboratory (Laboratory of Mechanical Properties) M.N. Miheev Institute of Metal Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences (Ural Branch), Yekaterinburg; Aleksandr G. Ovcharenko, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Biysk Technological Institute, Biysk; Yuriy N. Saraev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, V.P. Larionov Institute of the Physical-Technical Problems of the North of the Siberian Branch of the RAS, Yakutsk; Alexander S. Yanyushkin, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, I.N. Ulianov Chuvash State University, Cheboksary
Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 5 CONTENTS OBRABOTKAMETALLOV TECHNOLOGY Manikanta J.E., Ambhore N., Shamkuwar S., Gurajala N.K., Dakarapu S.R. Investigation of vegetable-based hybrid nanofl uids on machining performance in MQL turning........................................................................................... 6 Dama Y.B., Jogi B.F., Pawade R., Kulkarni A.P. Impact of print orientation on wear behavior in FDM printed PLA Biomaterial: Study for hip-joint implant...................................................................................................................... 19 GrinenkoA.V., ChumaevskyA.V., Sidorov E.A., Utyaganova V.R.,AmirovA.I., Kolubaev E.A. Geometry distortion, edge oxidation, structural changes and cut surface morphology of 100mm thick sheet product made of aluminum, copper and titanium alloys during reverse polarity plasma cutting...................................................................................... 41 Somatkar A., Dwivedi R., Chinchanikar S. Comparative evaluation of roller burnishing of Al6061-T6 alloy under dry and nanofl uid minimum quantity lubrication conditions............................................................................................... 57 Karlina Yu.I., Konyukhov V.Yu., Oparina T.A. Assessment of the quality and mechanical properties of metal layers from low-carbon steel obtained by the WAAM method with the use of additional using additional mechanical and ultrasonic processing..................................................................................................................................................... 75 EQUIPMENT. INSTRUMENTS Yusubov N.D., Abbasova H.M. Systematics of multi-tool setup on lathe group machines............................................... 92 Toshov J.B., Fozilov D.M., Yelemessov K.K., Ruziev U.N., Abdullayev D.N., Baskanbayeva D.D., Bekirova L.R. Increasing the durability of drill bit teeth by changing its manufacturing technology......................................................... 112 Pospelov I.D. Investigation of the distribution of normal contact stresses in deformation zone during hot rolling of strips made of structural low-alloy steels to increase the resistance of working rolls..................................................... 125 Ablyaz T.R., Blokhin V.B., Shlykov E.S., Muratov K.R., Osinnikov I.V. Manufacturing of tool electrodes with optimized confi guration for copy-piercing electrical discharge machining by rapid prototyping method.......................... 138 MATERIAL SCIENCE Shubert A.V., Konovalov S.V., Panchenko I.A. A review of research on high-entropy alloys, its properties, methods of creation and application.................................................................................................................................................. 153 Syusyuka E.N., Amineva E.H., Kabirov Yu.V., Prutsakova N.V. Analysis of changes in the microstructure of compression rings of an auxiliary marine engine.......................................................................................................... 180 Dudareva A.A., Bushueva E.G., Tyurin A.G., Domarov E.V., Nasennik I.E., Shikalov V.S., Skorokhod K.A., Legkodymov A.A. The eff ect of hot plastic deformation on the structure and properties of surface-modifi ed layers after non-vacuum electron beam surfacing of a powder mixture of composition 10Cr-30B on steel 0.12 C-18 Cr-9 Ni-Ti............................................................................................................................................................................. 192 Boltrushevich A.E., Martyushev N.V., Kozlov V.N., Kuznetsova Yu.S. Structure of Inconel 625 alloy blanks obtained by electric arc surfacing and electron beam surfacing........................................................................................... 206 Sablina T.Y., Panchenko M.Yu., Zyatikov I.A., Puchikin A.V., Konovalov I.N., Panchenko Yu.N. Study of surface hydrophilicity of metallic materials modifi ed by ultraviolet laser radiation........................................................................ 218 EDITORIALMATERIALS 234 FOUNDERS MATERIALS 243 CONTENTS
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 TECHNOLOGY Assessment of the quality and mechanical properties of metal layers from low-carbon steel obtained by the WAAM method with the use of additional using additional mechanical and ultrasonic processing Yulia Karlina 1, a, *, Vladimir Konyukhov 2, b, Tatiana Oparina 2, c 1 National Research Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, 26 Yaroslavskoe Shosse, Moscow, 129337, Russian Federation 2 Irkutsk National Research Technical University, 83 Lermontova str., Irkutsk, 664074, Russian Federation a https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6519-561X, jul.karlina@gmail.com; b https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9137-9404, konyukhov_vyu@mail.ru; c https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9062-6554, martusina2@yandex.ru Obrabotka metallov - Metal Working and Material Science Journal homepage: http://journals.nstu.ru/obrabotka_metallov Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science. 2024 vol. 26 no. 4 pp. 75–91 ISSN: 1994-6309 (print) / 2541-819X (online) DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2024-26.4-75-91 ART I CLE I NFO Article history: Received: 14 September 2024 Revised: 08 October 2024 Accepted: 17 October 2024 Available online: 15 December 2024 Keywords: Additive Manufacturing Wire and arc additive manufacturing WAAM Wire Structure Ultrasonic hardening Hardness Yield strength Pores Gas ABSTRACT Introduction. Additive manufacturing is a technology that enables three-dimensional (3D) components to be printed layer by layer according to digital models. Completely diff erent from traditional manufacturing methods such as casting, forging, and machining, additive manufacturing is a near net shape manufacturing process that can greatly enhance design freedom and reduce manufacturing runtime. The material processing challenges in Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) are related to achieving performance metrics related to geometric, physical, and material properties. Tight tolerances and stringent surface integrity requirements cannot be achieved by utilizing stand-alone AM technologies. Therefore, WAAM parts typically require some post-processing to meet requirements related to surface fi nish, dimensional tolerances and mechanical properties. It is therefore not surprising that the integration of AM with post-processing technologies into single and multi-setup machining solutions, commonly referred to as hybrid AM, has become a very attractive proposition for industry. The purpose of the work is to evaluate the quality and mechanical properties of the resulting metal layers of mild steel by WAAM method using additional mechanical and ultrasonic processing. Research Methods. To conduct the experiments, a set of welding equipment was used — a single-phase inverter device KEMPPI Kempomat 1701, designed for welding with wire in shielding gases. A mixture of argon and carbon dioxide (80 % argon and 20 % CO2) was used as a shielding gas. SV-08G2S (0.8 C-2 Mg-Si) wire was used as the surfacing material. Aplate made of steel St3 with overall dimensions 150×100×5 mm was used as a base for surfacing. The surface of the plate before surfacing was thoroughly cleaned from the layer of oxides, oil, rust and other contaminants. For this purpose mechanical cleaning of the surface was used with BOSCH abrasive wheel with a diameter of 125 mm diameter and a grit size of 120. Before surfacing the surface of the product was degreased with white spirit. The gas fl ow rate was set at 8 dm3/min. To select the optimal wire feed rate and volt-ampere characteristic, surfacing was performed at each adjustment step of wire feed rate, and voltage. Mechanical statistical tensile tests, chemical composition analysis and metallographic studies were also performed. Results and Discussion. Gas porosity is a typical defect that occurs during the WAAM process and should be eliminated because it adversely aff ects the mechanical properties. Initially, gas porosity leads to a reduction in the mechanical strength of the part due to damage from microcrack formation. In addition, it often causes the surfaced layer to have worse fatigue properties due to the spatial distribution of diff erent shape and size structures. In our experiments we found that a wire feed speed range of 5–6 m/min is optimal. Increasing the fl ow rate of shielding gas in the range of 8–14 l/min allows reducing porosity in the surfaced metal to almost zero. The mechanical properties of the surfaced beads show that the average value of yield strength after machining is higher than that of unprocessed specimens. The data obtained from these experiments are in good agreement with those reported in the literature. The presented results can be used in real WAAM technological processes. For citation: KarlinaYu.I., KonyukhovV.Yu., Oparina T.A.Assessment of the quality andmechanical properties of metal layers from low-carbon steel obtained by the WAAM method with the use of additional using additional mechanical and ultrasonic processing. Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science, 2024, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 75–91. DOI: 10.17212/1994-63092024-26.4-75-91. (In Russian). ______ * Corresponding author Karlina Yulia I., Ph.D. (Engineering), Research Associate National Research Moscow State Construction University, Yaroslavskoe shosse, 26, 129337, Moscow, Russian Federation Tel.: +7 914 879-85-05, e-mail: jul.karlina@gmail.com
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV TECHNOLOGY Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 Introduction Advances in additive manufacturing (AM) technology have expanded its application areas, and AM is becoming a viable option for producing fully functional metal parts [1–3]. In fact, metal AM is currently being applied in various industries [3–5]. One of the AM methods is Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM). Among all the existing AM methods, WAAM is known to be a relatively low-cost method that provides the highest surfacing rates [1–5]. Using this technology, the surfacing process is carried out in the open air using a robotic arm with a fi xed welding torch, with a localized shielded area [5–15]. An important challenge in ensuring the structural integrity of WAAM components is to evaluate the impact of the welding processes integrated into the WAAM technology on the mechanical and fracture properties compared to those obtained from the as-deformed material. WAAM technology enables the creation of parts with complex topologically optimized geometries with internal cavities that are impossible to form using traditional manufacturing processes. However, in most cases, the tight tolerances and strict surface integrity requirements cannot be achieved using stand-alone AM technologies. Therefore, WAAM parts usually require some post-processing to meet the requirements related to surface fi nish, dimensional tolerances and mechanical properties. Most of the literature on additive manufacturing describes the integration of AM with post-processing technologies into single- or multi-tool processing solutions, commonly referred to as hybrid AM. Most of the work devoted to additive manufacturing integrates AM with post-processing technologies into single- or multi-setup processing solutions, commonly referred to as hybrid AM. Hybrid AM has become a very attractive proposition for the industry, which has increased the amount of R&D work [5–15] aimed at developing this direction. The combination of additive and subtractive methods off ers a possible method to overcome this inherent problem of the process. It is also important to understand, and has been shown in numerous studies [10–18], that AM parts may contain voids or pores due to trapped gas or incomplete fusion during the printing process, which can weaken the structural integrity of the component. The works [4–9] point to an example that has been implemented in the Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM) process at Stanford University and the Controlled Material Buildup (CMB) process developed at IPT Aachen. In these processes, each layer is applied as a near-net shape using a thermal spray process, essentially laser cladding. The layer is then further shaped by CNC milling to the net shape before the next layer is added. In SDM processes, the top and side surfaces of each layer are machined and then protected by adding a copper support structure. This support structure is then removed using an etching process when the part is complete. In the work [4], the authors developed a similar approach, 3D welding and milling, using WAAM instead of laser cladding for faster and more cost-eff ective surfacing of individual beads. In the 3D welding and milling process, conventional gas metal arc welding is used to surface individual beads next to each other. Depending on the welding parameters such as speed and power, the bead thickness varies from 0.5 to 1.5 mm. When applying a layer, its upper surface is machined to obtain a smooth surface of a certain thickness for further application. Combining this process with face milling gives a clear advantage in setting the layer thickness from 0.1 to 1.0 mm. Once the deposition and face milling sequence is completed, a surface fi nishing treatment is applied in the same setup to remove the remaining steps on the surface and improve the near-net shape accuracy of the metal part. Until now, the mechanical properties and microstructure of WAAM carbon steels have not been comprehensively characterized. To fi ll this gap in knowledge, the authors of [19–22] conducted a comprehensive series of tensile tests on plates made of normal and high-strength WAAM steel; the microstructure of both steel grades was also investigated. In the works [23, 24], the fracture toughness of deposited walls made of low-carbon steel was investigated, and the advantage of the WAAM method was demonstrated. Some applications of the WAAM process are summarized in [22, 23] regarding the welding heat source used by the researchers. Some researchers have tried to use the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process [23, 24] for WAAM as the main deposition tool due to its advantages such as relatively low metal spatter, independent control of
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 TECHNOLOGY the heat source and wire feed system combined with additional machining [25]. Other related processes in which a plasma torch is used instead of GTAW are Hybrid Plasma Deposition and Milling (HPDM) and Micro Plasma Arc Welding rapid prototyping (MPAW) [26, 27]. In all the metal deposition processes discussed above, precise layer height control remains a challenge due to the wavy nature of multi-pass deposition. To obtain components with precise layer thickness, some researchers have combined milling and deposition [4–6, 25]. These hybrid processes perform a surface milling operation after each layer to ensure z-accuracy. 3D welding and milling developed by [4, 5] combine GMAW deposition with a conventional milling process to produce injection molding inserts [7–12]. In the works [28–30] it is proposed to additionally use ultrasonic processing of products obtained by WAAM technology. According to the authors, this will improve the mechanical properties of the grown products. Many parameters of ultrasonic additional processing in the WAAM process have not yet been optimized and depend on the type of equipment, frequency, amplitude, etc. At the same time, the integration of traditional subtractive technologies with WAAM can provide improved material and energy savings compared to pure subtractive approaches. In fact, WAAM components typically exhibit high structural integrity when the process parameters are optimized, so only machining operations need to be performed. In addition, very little surface deformation depth is expected with the hybrid technology. The synergistic integration of the surfacing unit with the CNC machine, regardless of its brand and age, is a key aspect in the hybrid technology. The integration should be done in a way that surfacing can act as an additional function without disturbing other capabilities of the CNC machine. During the integration, changes to the mechanical and electrical systems are made without the need for any proprietary information from the machine manufacturer or the control system designer. There are mechanical challenges: the fi rst is to mount the welding torch on the side of the spindle so that surfacing is controlled through the same CNC controller; the second is to select a suitable mechanism to remove the excess heat generated during welding; the third is to take appropriate precautions to protect the machine components from accidental splashes. Electrical and control problems arise separately: 1) switching on/off the welding and surfacing unit via the CNC program; 2) simple and fast switching between surfacing mode and normal CNC mode; 3) elimination of any direct electrical contact between the CNC controller and the welding unit. It is important to understand that serial equipment for the implementation of complex (hybrid additive technology) is not yet manufactured, and all work performed in this area is associated with the modernization of CNC machines, which is not always justifi ed from an economic point of view. A relatively simple methodological point of view and minimal fi nancial costs for equipment is an approach based on the separate use of WAAM technology with other processing methods that are available for a wider range of studies, in order to study the properties of the obtained materials. This paper presents a study of the characteristics of metal processing applied by the WAAM method with additional mechanical and ultrasonic processing. The aim of the work is to evaluate the quality and mechanical properties of the obtained metal layers from low-carbon steel using the WAAM method with the use of additional mechanical and ultrasonic processing. Materials and research methods A single-phase inverter device KEMPPI Kempomat 1701 was used as a power source for mechanized surfacing in a protective gas environment. A mixture of argon (80 %) and CO2 (20 %) was used as a shielding gas. Welding wire Sv-08G2S (0.08 C-2 Mn-Si) with a copper coating of 1.0 mm in diameter was used. The parameters of the layer growth process (Fig. 1, a) were determined to ensure optimal productivity and cooling time between successive layer depositions. The number of passes was determined to be 5. After each pass, mechanical processing of the surface of the surfaced bead was carried out. Then, visual inspection was carried out and a magnifying glass (ten-power magnifi cation) was used to assess the surface quality. After the inspection, a new layer was surfaced (Fig. 1, b).
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV TECHNOLOGY Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 The variable parameters were the wire feed and the shielding gas consumption. The gas consumption during the experiments was selected in the range of 8–12 l/min. This had to be done in order to evaluate this parameter for porosity. At the same time, other parameters, current, wire feed, surfacing speed were constant. Ultrasonic processing was carried out on the last surfacing layer for 1, 5, 10, 15 minutes using the Shmel Mg unit. Tensile tests were carried out in accordance with GOST 1497-84. A total of 3 test pieces were cut from a steel wall manufactured using standard WAAM and hybrid WAAM. Impact toughness (KCU) was carried out in accordance with GOST 9454-78 and GOST 6996. For this purpose, 3 test pieces were cut from a steel wall manufactured using standard WAAM and hybrid WAAM and prepared. After completion of the impact bending tests, the fracture surfaces of the test pieces were examined using a JEOL JIB-Z4500-SEM scanning electron microscope (SEM) to compare the main types of failure associated with diff erent forming technologies. For microstructural analysis, metallographic specimens were extracted from the wall along the growth directions, polished according to standard procedures to a surface fi nish of 1 μm, etched with 4 % aqueous nitric acid solution and examined using an optical microscope (MicroMed 2). Hardness measurements were carried out at diff erent locations and orientations of the wall, including the lower, middle and upper zones, using a Shimadzu HBR-VU-187 microhardness tester with a load of 200 g and a dwell time of 15 s. Research results Fig. 2, 3 show the results of the infl uence of the wire feed and the shielding gas consumption on the metal porosity. The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in Fig. 2 show the number of weld beads. Fig. 3 shows the infl uence of the shielding gas consumption on the porosity. It is evident that with an increase in consumption, the porosity in the weld metal decreases to zero. Fig. 4 shows the results of the infl uence of mechanical cleaning after each layer of surfacing on the surface quality and the geometric dimensions of the surfaced bead. It is evident that the use of machining aff ects the height of the surfaced bead and the quality of the weld (Fig. 5). The microstructure of the surfaced beads material, shown in Fig. 6, consists of polygonal ferrite (PF) and intergranular lamellar pearlite (P). Tables 1 and 2 present the results of static tensile tests and impact bending tests. It is evident that machining increases the yield strength and endurance of the surfaced metal compared to the results without machining. The impact toughness values also diff er when additional machining is used. The fractography images in Fig. 7, b show that the specimens without machining contain pores, which reduces the impact toughness values. a b Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the bead surfacing process (a) and a plate with surfaced beads (b)
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 TECHNOLOGY Fig. 2. Eff ect of wire feed on porosity across the surfaced bead cross section a b Fig. 3. Eff ect of shielding gas fl ow rate on porosity in surfaced beads (a) and a graph of the dependence of the number of pores on the gas fl ow rate (b) a b Fig. 4. Eff ect of machining on the geometrical parameters of the surfaced bead depending on the number of passes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) (a) and graphical representation of the dependence (b)
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV TECHNOLOGY Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 Fig. 5. Assessment of weld quality after machining after each pass a b Fig. 6. Microstructure of metal in the joint area after tempering Ta b l e 1 Results of static tensile tests Specimen identifi cation mark Test temperature, °С Yield strength, σy (σ0,2) MPa Ultimate strength, σu, MPa Relative elongation, δ5 (δ10), % 1 20 364; 356; 361 474; 479; 481 16.75; 17.01; 16.82 2 with machining 20 404; 410; 412 518; 522; 527 33.25; 33.01; 32.48 Steel 0.09 C-2 Mn-Si (GOST) 265 430 21 Steel 0.09 C-2 Mn-Si (Fact) 20 275; 270; 278 435; 431; 440 22.01; 22.12; 22.34
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 TECHNOLOGY The results of ultrasonic processing tests of the upper bead are shown in Fig. 8. Traces of plastic deformation are visible in the microstructure image (Fig. 8, a). Processing time aff ects the microhardness values (Fig. 8, b). Research and discussion According to numerous studies on welded arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) [2–10,18–28], in order to obtain excellent quality of surfaced metal without any defects, it is necessary to carefully select and implement a combination of process parameters, such as wire diameter, wire feed, travel speed, welding Ta b l e 2 Results of impact bending tests Specimen identifi cation mark Test temperature, °С Geometric dimensions of the specimen Work of fracture (KU), kg/cm Impact strength, (KCU), J/cm2 Note Width, mm Height, mm (at the point of incision) Cross-sectional area, cm2 4 20 9.95 7.94 0.790 15.6 183.5 Surfacing 5 20 9.94 7.9 0.785 14.8 194.7 6 20 10.01 7.92 0.792 21.5 255.7 Surfacing with machining 7 20 9.96 7.95 0.791 21.2 268.3 Steel 0.09 C-2 Mn-Si (GOST) 20 Not less than 59 Steel 0.09 C-2 Mn-Si (Fact) 20 115 a b Fig. 7. Fracture analysis of specimens with machining (a) and without (b)
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV TECHNOLOGY Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 a b Fig. 8. Results of ultrasonic hardening of the top bead (a) and hardness distribution in the surface layer (b) voltage, welding current, nozzle-to-workpiece distance, shielding gas torch angle and step distance. The main problem faced by WAAM is to decide whether to increase the deposition rate of the metal being deposited or to reduce the heat input distribution. This is due to the fact that the wire feed is closely related to the required heat input [15–20] for its melting. In our experiments, we found that the optimal indicator is the range of wire feed of 5–6 m/min. At the same time, we saw that with such parameters there is another factor that should be taken into account; this factor is the porosity of the weld bead (Fig. 2). It is known that gas porosity is a typical defect that occurs in the WAAM process and should be eliminated because it negatively aff ects the mechanical properties [23, 24]. Initially, gas porosity leads to a decrease in the mechanical strength of the component due to damage from the formation of microcracks. In addition, it often leads to the fact that the deposited layer has worse fatigue properties due to the spatial distribution of structures of diff erent shapes and sizes [24]. Another factor that contributes to the formation of porosity in the layered structure is the prevalence of surface contaminants in the raw material, such as moisture, impurities, and grease. The gas pores are usually trapped in the uppermost layer of the fusion zone, causing it to spread toward the top of the solidifi ed weld pool. When thin oxide fi lms form quickly on the surface of the weld pool, it easily absorb molecular hydrogen and moisture from the air, which then increases the amount of hydrogen present in the upper part of each layer. As a result, there is usually more trapped hydrogen and small micropores in the fusion line zone of each layer, which can grow and coalesce into larger pores when exposed to high temperatures. Consequently, larger pores are often observed along the fusion line zone between layers. Porosity is one of the most common and undesirable defects that greatly degrades weld properties such as strength and fatigue. Our results show that the shielding gas fl ow rate aff ects the quality of the part. Increasing the gas fl ow rate reduces the porosity within the studied range. The single-scan track tests conducted in [24] show that even with single-scan tracks, the weld pool geometry is signifi cantly dependent on the shielding gas fl ow conditions. Our experiments (Fig. 3) show that increasing the shielding gas fl ow rate within 8–14 l/ min allows us to reduce the porosity in the deposited metal to almost zero. The pores trapped by the gas are spherical (Fig. 3). The pores develop throughout the process due to gas entrapment, supersaturation of dissolved gases, and chemical reaction within the weld pool, which leads to the formation of gaseous products [23, 24]. When the equilibrium gas pressure exceeds the sum of its hydrostatic, atmospheric, and capillary pressures, there is a high probability of the formation of trapped gas holes. Nucleating pores lead to vacancies [18, 21], allowing supersaturated gases to penetrate into the weld pool. When rapid cooling occurs, the pore nucleation sites can be captured by the weld pool. On the other hand, slower cooling rates allow these pores to enlarge and sometimes merge with neighboring pores. Further, our proposed mechanical grinding allows for further reduction of metal porosity by removing the defective layer after surfacing, as well as by removing the oxidized metal Fig. 4, 5.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 TECHNOLOGY Our experiments have shown that the wire feed aff ects the characteristics of the weld bead, including the weld bead height, weld bead width, and contact angle (Fig. 4, b). The eff ect of the wire feed on the weld bead width is diffi cult to control. Initially, the weld bead width reaches a maximum value, but then begins to decrease as the wire feed increases. This is because the contact angle continues to increase with wire feed, so insuffi cient wetting will have a negative eff ect on the weld bead. Arc current and voltage are other important elements in the WAAM optimization process. These are the main process control parameters that regulate the amount of heat supplied and dissipated, thereby aff ecting the weld deposition. It is important to prevent uneven bead deposition and poor surface roughness. In addition, excessive heat input may cause re-melting of previously deposited layers, which will adversely aff ect the microstructure, bead size, and its mechanical properties. It is important to optimize the current and voltage to improve the overall effi ciency of the process. This allows for the optimal amount of heat required to melt the metals in the WAAM process. This minimizes defects such as wavy surface morphology, uneven layer deposits, and the time required for post-processing. The microstructure of the weld beads’ material shown in Fig. 6 consists of polygonal ferrite (PF) and intergranular lamellar pearlite (P), which is consistent with the work of other authors on WAAM with low-carbon wires [25]. Therefore, grain size analysis was performed on the WAAM material based on the micrographs of Fig. 6, b. The grain size was 25–35 μm, compared to traditional welding with Sv-08G2S wire [24–25]. The grain size usually increases as the beads grow with increasing distance from the base plate; this is due to the slower cooling away from the plate due to the decreasing infl uence of the heat removal eff ect [3–5, 22]. In WAAM, solidifi cation is a major processing issue due to the advancement of the microstructure containing large columnar grains. The mechanical properties of the weld beads are presented in Table 1. It is evident that additional machining of each bead improves the mechanical properties. Table 2 presents the impact toughness test results for the test pieces. The impact toughness values with additional machining are higher due to the elimination of the deposited metal porosity, Fig. 7. The results of ultrasonic hardening of the last deposited layer (Fig. 8) showed that it can smooth the weld tip profi le, improve its microstructure, increase microhardness and introduce useful compressive residual stress into the surface layer. It is known that additional processing of welds allows creating compressive stresses in the surface layer, thereby increasing fatigue strength [28, 29]. The work [28] shows that residual compressive stress was created in the area of ultrasonic impact at a depth of 1.5–1.7 mm and a width of 15 mm. Thus, our studies have shown that the use of an intermediate operation of machining of the weld bead improves the quality of the metal, and the fi nal operation of ultrasonic processing of the upper bead (closing the additive growth process) increases the hardness of the surface layer. According to the results of studies [28, 29], it was found that ultrasonic processing of welds and weld beads reduces the quantitative values of technological residual stresses. In our further studies, we will continue the study in this matter in order to clarify the optimal processing parameters. Conclusion 1. The relationship between the geometric dimensions of the surfacing beads and the porosity in the metal with and without interpass machining is established. It is shown that the metal formed by the new combined WAAM process has a higher set of mechanical properties compared to the metal obtained by the traditional WAAM technology. 2. It is established that the yield strength and ultimate strength of the metal formed by the combined WAAM process are 15–30 % higher than those obtained by the traditional WAAM process. The impact toughness values in impact bending tests of the metal formed by the combined WAAM process are 15–25 % higher than those obtained by the traditional WAAM process. 3. It is shown that ultrasonic hardening of the last deposited layer has a positive eff ect due to an increase in the microhardness of the surface layer of the metal and the formation of compressive stresses in it.
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