Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 3 EDITORIAL COUNCIL EDITORIAL BOARD EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Anatoliy A. Bataev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Rector, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation DEPUTIES EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Vladimir V. Ivancivsky, D.Sc. (Engineering), Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Machinery Design, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Vadim Y. Skeeba, Ph.D. (Engineering), Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Machinery Design, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Editor of the English translation: Elena A. Lozhkina, Ph.D. (Engineering), Department of Material Science in Mechanical Engineering, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation The journal is issued since 1999 Publication frequency – 4 numbers a year Data on the journal are published in «Ulrich's Periodical Directory» Journal “Obrabotka Metallov” (“Metal Working and Material Science”) has been Indexed in Clarivate Analytics Services. Novosibirsk State Technical University, Prospekt K. Marksa, 20, Novosibirsk, 630073, Russia Tel.: +7 (383) 346-17-75 http://journals.nstu.ru/obrabotka_metallov E-mail: metal_working@mail.ru; metal_working@corp.nstu.ru Journal “Obrabotka Metallov – Metal Working and Material Science” is indexed in the world's largest abstracting bibliographic and scientometric databases Web of Science and Scopus. Journal “Obrabotka Metallov” (“Metal Working & Material Science”) has entered into an electronic licensing relationship with EBSCO Publishing, the world's leading aggregator of full text journals, magazines and eBooks. The full text of JOURNAL can be found in the EBSCOhost™ databases.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 4 EDITORIAL COUNCIL EDITORIAL COUNCIL CHAIRMAN: Nikolai V. Pustovoy, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, President, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation MEMBERS: The Federative Republic of Brazil: Alberto Moreira Jorge Junior, Dr.-Ing., Full Professor; Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos The Federal Republic of Germany: Moniko Greif, Dr.-Ing., Professor, Hochschule RheinMain University of Applied Sciences, Russelsheim Florian Nürnberger, Dr.-Ing., Chief Engineer and Head of the Department “Technology of Materials”, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen; Thomas Hassel, Dr.-Ing., Head of Underwater Technology Center Hanover, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen The Spain: Andrey L. Chuvilin, Ph.D. (Physics and Mathematics), Ikerbasque Research Professor, Head of Electron Microscopy Laboratory “CIC nanoGUNE”, San Sebastian The Republic of Belarus: Fyodor I. Panteleenko, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, First Vice-Rector, Corresponding Member of National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Belarusian National Technical University, Minsk The Ukraine: Sergiy V. Kovalevskyy, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Vice Rector for Research and Academic Aff airs, Donbass State Engineering Academy, Kramatorsk The Russian Federation: Vladimir G. Atapin, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Victor P. Balkov, Deputy general director, Research and Development Tooling Institute “VNIIINSTRUMENT”, Moscow; Vladimir A. Bataev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Vladimir G. Burov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Aleksandr N. Korotkov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Kuzbass State Technical University, Kemerovo; Dmitry V. Lobanov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Associate Professor, I.N. Ulianov Chuvash State University, Cheboksary; Aleksey V. Makarov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Corresponding Member of RAS, Head of division, Head of laboratory (Laboratory of Mechanical Properties) M.N. Miheev Institute of Metal Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences (Ural Branch), Yekaterinburg; Aleksandr G. Ovcharenko, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Biysk Technological Institute, Biysk; Yuriy N. Saraev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, V.P. Larionov Institute of the Physical-Technical Problems of the North of the Siberian Branch of the RAS, Yakutsk; Alexander S. Yanyushkin, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, I.N. Ulianov Chuvash State University, Cheboksary
Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 5 CONTENTS OBRABOTKAMETALLOV TECHNOLOGY Manikanta J.E., Ambhore N., Shamkuwar S., Gurajala N.K., Dakarapu S.R. Investigation of vegetable-based hybrid nanofl uids on machining performance in MQL turning........................................................................................... 6 Dama Y.B., Jogi B.F., Pawade R., Kulkarni A.P. Impact of print orientation on wear behavior in FDM printed PLA Biomaterial: Study for hip-joint implant...................................................................................................................... 19 GrinenkoA.V., ChumaevskyA.V., Sidorov E.A., Utyaganova V.R.,AmirovA.I., Kolubaev E.A. Geometry distortion, edge oxidation, structural changes and cut surface morphology of 100mm thick sheet product made of aluminum, copper and titanium alloys during reverse polarity plasma cutting...................................................................................... 41 Somatkar A., Dwivedi R., Chinchanikar S. Comparative evaluation of roller burnishing of Al6061-T6 alloy under dry and nanofl uid minimum quantity lubrication conditions............................................................................................... 57 Karlina Yu.I., Konyukhov V.Yu., Oparina T.A. Assessment of the quality and mechanical properties of metal layers from low-carbon steel obtained by the WAAM method with the use of additional using additional mechanical and ultrasonic processing..................................................................................................................................................... 75 EQUIPMENT. INSTRUMENTS Yusubov N.D., Abbasova H.M. Systematics of multi-tool setup on lathe group machines............................................... 92 Toshov J.B., Fozilov D.M., Yelemessov K.K., Ruziev U.N., Abdullayev D.N., Baskanbayeva D.D., Bekirova L.R. Increasing the durability of drill bit teeth by changing its manufacturing technology......................................................... 112 Pospelov I.D. Investigation of the distribution of normal contact stresses in deformation zone during hot rolling of strips made of structural low-alloy steels to increase the resistance of working rolls..................................................... 125 Ablyaz T.R., Blokhin V.B., Shlykov E.S., Muratov K.R., Osinnikov I.V. Manufacturing of tool electrodes with optimized confi guration for copy-piercing electrical discharge machining by rapid prototyping method.......................... 138 MATERIAL SCIENCE Shubert A.V., Konovalov S.V., Panchenko I.A. A review of research on high-entropy alloys, its properties, methods of creation and application.................................................................................................................................................. 153 Syusyuka E.N., Amineva E.H., Kabirov Yu.V., Prutsakova N.V. Analysis of changes in the microstructure of compression rings of an auxiliary marine engine.......................................................................................................... 180 Dudareva A.A., Bushueva E.G., Tyurin A.G., Domarov E.V., Nasennik I.E., Shikalov V.S., Skorokhod K.A., Legkodymov A.A. The eff ect of hot plastic deformation on the structure and properties of surface-modifi ed layers after non-vacuum electron beam surfacing of a powder mixture of composition 10Cr-30B on steel 0.12 C-18 Cr-9 Ni-Ti............................................................................................................................................................................. 192 Boltrushevich A.E., Martyushev N.V., Kozlov V.N., Kuznetsova Yu.S. Structure of Inconel 625 alloy blanks obtained by electric arc surfacing and electron beam surfacing........................................................................................... 206 Sablina T.Y., Panchenko M.Yu., Zyatikov I.A., Puchikin A.V., Konovalov I.N., Panchenko Yu.N. Study of surface hydrophilicity of metallic materials modifi ed by ultraviolet laser radiation........................................................................ 218 EDITORIALMATERIALS 234 FOUNDERS MATERIALS 243 CONTENTS
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 Structure of Inconel 625 alloy blanks obtained by electric arc surfacing and electron beam surfacing Aleksandr Boltrushevich 1, a, Nikita Martyushev 1, b, *, Victor Kozlov 1, c, Yulia Kuznetsova 2, d 1 National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, 30 Lenin Avenue, Tomsk, 634050, Russian Federation 2 Admiral Ushakov State Maritime University, 93, Lenin Ave., Novorossiysk, 353924, Russian Federation a https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9971-7850, aeb20@tpu.ru; b https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0620-9561, martjushev@tpu.ru; c https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9351-5713, kozlov-viktor@bk.ru; d https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1388-6125, julx@bk.ru Obrabotka metallov - Metal Working and Material Science Journal homepage: http://journals.nstu.ru/obrabotka_metallov Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science. 2024 vol. 26 no. 4 pp. 206–217 ISSN: 1994-6309 (print) / 2541-819X (online) DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2024-26.4-206-217 ART I CLE I NFO Article history: Received: 13 September 2024 Revised: 05 October 2024 Accepted: 10 October 2024 Available online: 15 December 2024 Keywords: Additive manufacturing Inconel 625 Electric arc surfacing Electron beam surfacing Microstructure Funding This research was supported by TPU development program. Acknowledgements The research was carried out at the equipment of the Engineering Center “Design and Production of High-Tech Equipment” and the shared research facility “Structure, mechanical and physical properties of materials”. ABSTRACT Introduction. Development of the manufacturing industry has led to the emergence of new methods for manufacturing blanks and parts. One of these new promising methods is additive manufacturing and, in particular, electric arc and electron beam surfacing technologies. The use of these technologies in the production of blanks from heat-resistant materials provides a number of signifi cant advantages. The paper presents the results of a study of the microstructure of Inconel 625 specimens obtained using EBAM and WAAM technologies. The purpose of the work is a comparative analysis of the microstructure of Inconel 625 nickel alloy blanks obtained using EBAM and WAAM technologies. Methods and materials. The paper examined specimens obtained using EBAM and WAAM technologies. The specimens were manufactured using equipment developed at Tomsk Polytechnic University. Metallographic studies, scanning electron microscopy were carried out, and the microhardness of the obtained specimens was determined. Results and discussion. Comparison of specimens obtained by two diff erent additive printing technologies EBAM and WAAM showed general patterns of structure formation that appear when using additive technologies. The specimens have a dendritic microstructure and contain zones rich in Ti, Mo and Nb, which is typical for nonequilibrium cooling. Pores are also observed in the specimens. The grains in the specimens have a predominantly elongated shape and are oriented in the direction of heat removal. The length of the grains reaches 1 mm. Diff erences in the specimens are observed in the number of formed inclusions of intermetallic compounds, in the number of formed pores, in the size of the grains. The EBAM technology provides more uniform structure. The diff erence in hardness between EBAM and WAAM is about 3.5 %. At the same time, the speed of specimen production using the WAAM technology is signifi cantly higher. For citation: Boltrushevich A.E., Martyushev N.V., Kozlov V.N., Kuznetsova Yu.S. Structure of Inconel 625 alloy blanks obtained by electric arc surfacing and electron beam surfacing. Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science, 2024, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 206–217. DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2024-26.4-206-217. (In Russian). ______ * Corresponding author Martyushev Nikita V., Ph.D. (Engineering), Associate Professor National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, 30 Lenin Avenue, 634050, Tomsk, Russian Federation Tel.: +7 3822 60-62-85, e-mail: martjushev@tpu.ru Introduction In recent years, additive manufacturing has been rapidly expanding its scope of application due to its unique advantages. This manufacturing method allows the creation of complex-shaped parts with high precision, using a variety of materials, from plastic to metal, while signifi cantly reducing time and costs compared to traditional technologies [1–4]. Depending on the requirements for the fi nal product, specialists
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 apply diff erent technologies of additive manufacturing. Active development of additive technologies (AT) leads to a reduction in the cost of products manufactured with its help. This allows for the rapid production of parts and blanks of not only complex shapes, but also simpler shapes from expensive materials [5, 6]. An example of such parts can be fl anges made of heat-resistant materials. When using AT, there is no need to make a hole and the volume of material removed due to subtractive machining is also reduced. This makes the use of AT in this case economically justifi ed. Also, the use of AT for the production of fl anges allows it to be manufactured to a specifi c size, which provides even greater savings in time and costs compared to the production of a similar part from rolled steel [7–9]. Electron beam (EBAM) and arc printing (WAAM) are the most suitable technologies for the rapid production of simple fl ange-type parts made of heat-resistant materials and, in particular, Inconel [10]. EBAM uses a high-power electron beam to melt a metal wire material, which is surfaced layer by layer to form the desired part. This method can create large size parts with high density and strength [11–14]. One of the key advantages of additive manufacturing is its ability to create complex 3D components with greater speed and fl exibility compared to traditional methods such as milling or casting [15, 16]. 3D printing can reduce the number of manufacturing steps, minimize material waste, and create parts that cannot be made by other methods. This opens up new opportunities for engineers, allowing them to bring their boldest ideas to life [17–20]. Vacuum surfacing of blanks using EBAM technology makes it possible to signifi cantly accelerate the workpiece fabrication process in comparison with SLS (selective laser sintering) technology. However, this is a rather expensive and labor-intensive method of parts manufacturing [21, 22]. A greater reduction in cost and simplifi cation of the workpiece fabrication technology can be achieved using WAAM technology. This technology uses arc welding to surface metal wires layer by layer to form three-dimensional objects. WAAM makes it possible to create large-sized parts much faster than other additive technologies such as electron beam surfacing. WAAM is suitable for producing parts from a variety of metals including steel, titanium and nickel alloys [23–25]. The disadvantages of this technology are the possibility of porosity formation due to printing in a gas environment, as well as worse quality of the printed surface. The features of EBAM and WAAM technologies will aff ect the structure and properties of the resulting blanks. The EBAM technology is currently used quite rarely for printing heat-resistant alloys [26, 27]. This is due to the relatively low prevalence and novelty of this technology. Printing heat-resistant alloys with the help of WAAM technology is also not often used. Printing of heat-resistant alloys by this technology has a number of technological diffi culties. For these reasons, there are very few works devoted to the printing of heat-resistant nickel alloys by EBAM and WAAM technologies [28–31]. The purpose of this work is to conduct a comparative analysis of microstructure of workpieces from nickel alloy Inconel 625 obtained by EBAM and WAAM technologies. Methods and materials Acommon nickel alloy of Inconel 625 was chosen as a material for specimen fabrication. The specimens were printed with a 1.2 mm diameter wire. Printing was carried out on a substrate made of stainless steel with dimensions of 110×110×20 mm. The substrate was placed over the back plate and clamped tightly. The back plate was used to apply molten raw material to the part. It acts as a protection against melt penetration into the substrate and damage to the table. In the printing unit used for printing, it was possible to adjust the position of the wire feeder. The position was adjusted in relation to the electron beam and the workpiece to be printed. This ensured the stability of the material transfer. During the welding process, a bridge of molten metal was created between the fuse and the molten bath [32, 33]. The chemical composition of wire material used for electron beam printing is shown in Table 1. Printing of the fi rst group of specimens was carried out on an electron beam wire surfacing unit manufactured at Tomsk Polytechnic University. The printing of the second group of specimens was carried out on an electric arc wire surfacing unit, also manufactured at Tomsk Polytechnic University.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 Four types of specimens were printed during the experimental work. Vertically and horizontally orientated specimens of each of the investigated technologies (EBAM and WAAM) were made. Cross sections of the specimens were made to investigate the microstructure. The microstructure was revealed using an etchant consisting of a mixture of concentrated nitric HNO3 (67 wt. %) and hydrochloric HCl (33 wt. %) acids taken in a ratio of 1:3 by volume. Microstructural studies were carried out using a metallographic microscope MMP-1 manufactured by BIOMED. Photographs of the microstructure were obtained using a DCM-510 SCOPE video eyepiece. Microhardness was measured using an automatic complex based on the EMCO-TEST DuraScan-10 microhardness tester. The measurements were carried out on the same specimens on which metallographic studies were carried out. Measurements were carried out with a Vickers indenter at a load of 1 kgf with a dwell time of 10 s. Results and discussion First of all, specimens were obtained for the research. Four specimens were obtained, two specimens using each of the EBAM and WAAM technologies. Specimens of vertical orientation (Figure 1 a, c) and horizontal orientation (Figure 1 b, d) were obtained. From the above pictures, it can be seen that the accuracy and surface quality of the specimens obtained by EBAM is higher. There is less metal spatter than when surfacing using an arc. Also, the cooling rate of specimens obtained by EBAM is lower than with WAAM printing. With EBAM, heat dissipation is diffi cult due to the lack of atmosphere. In WAAM surfacing of Inconel, helium is used. In addition, it is evident that the EBAM specimen has a greater number of layers. In WAAM surfacing, the thickness of printed layer is greater and the printing speed is higher. But this is accompanied by signifi cant temperature fl uctuations. The stresses caused by these temperature fl uctuations cause deformation of the substrate, even when it is about 5 mm thick. In this case, vertical orientation of the specimens gives a higher speed, but at the same time higher stresses arise. With horizontal orientation, the specimen cools down more uniformly. This is refl ected in a less deformation of the substrate. Ta b l e 1 Chemical composition of Inconel 625 nickel alloy wire Chemical element Ta Al Nb Mo Cr Si Fe Co Ti Mn Ni % 0.3 0.38 2.8 7.5 22.5 0.8 1.3 0.2 0.35 0.1 63.68 a b c d Fig. 1. Photos of specimens obtained using various additive technologies: a – horizontal specimen obtained using EBAM technology; b – vertical specimen obtained using EBAM technology; c – horizontal specimen obtained using WAAM technology; d – vertical specimen obtained using WAAM technology
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 The microstructure of Inconel 625 specimens obtained using EBAM and WAAM technologies is shown in Figure 2, a–d. This fi gure shows micrographs taken with an optical microscope in the center of the specimen. An elongated cellular structure with brightly colored particles in the interdendritic regions can be seen. The presence of dendritic structure is also clearly visible in all specimens. For horizontal specimens for both technologies, the dendrites have long fi rst-order axes, while the second-order axes are practically absent. For vertical specimens, the cooling rate is lower and second-order axes have time to form; the embryos of third-order axes can be seen in some places. The diff erence in dendrite development is clearly visible for EBAM technology (Fig. 2, a and Fig. 2, b). In addition, it is evident from the shown microstructure, that the grains are textured. The texture is more developed for vertical specimens due to the higher cooling rate. a b c d Fig. 2. Microstructure of specimens obtained using various additive technologies: a – horizontal specimen obtained using EBAM technology; b – vertical specimen obtained using EBAM technology; c – horizontal specimen obtained using WAAM technology; d – vertical specimen obtained using WAAM technology Certainly, diff erent cooling rates lead to the formation of diff erent grain sizes in the specimens. At the same time, in general, the same tendency is observed for all technologies under study. The grains have a dendritic structure; the grains are elongated in the direction of heat removal. The length of grains increases with distance from the substrate. For vertical specimens the cooling rate is lower and the grain length on the obtained specimens can reach 0.8–0.9 mm (vertical EBAM specimens). For horizontal specimens, the grain length reaches 0.3–0.5 mm. These data are in agreement with the results of other researchers. In [6], a specimen of Inconel 625 fabricated using the SLM technology had a grain length of about 1 mm. Specimens of Inconel 718 produced using the direct laser additive fusion process in the work [32] had a grain length of 3 mm. The authors of [11, 16], showed that the equiaxed grains are mainly located at the bottom, close to the Inconel 625 substrate. When moving away from the substrate, the grains elongate, texture appears and the length of the grains increases signifi cantly. Our results are in good agreement with the data of these authors.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 The regularities of the structure formation of specimens when printing with EBAM and WAAM technologies are similar to SLM technology. The diff erence is observed mainly in the sizes of phase components. The scanning electronmicroscopy (SEM) photographs of the surface of the printed Inconel 625 specimens are shown in Figure 3. As in other studies [2, 4, 5, 7], fi ne micron-sized particles were often observed in the surfaced material. Considering the particle size of the phase constituents, its quantitative chemical analysis can be diffi cult due to the XRD signal emanating from the matrix material. The chemical composition of the fabricated material (Table 2) is largely similar to that of the wire used for surfacing, except for elements such as iron and aluminum, the content of which was lower. The particles marked as 3 in Figure 3 showed more Nb, Mo, Ti and C (Table 2). This indicates the presence of MC carbides. A similar situation was also observed in Inconel 625 alloy fabricated by additive manufacturing method by the authors of [2, 4, 7]. The phase marked as point 2 had elevated amounts of Ni, Nb, Cr and Mo without the presence of carbon (Table 2). This indicates the presence of intermetallic phases. a b Fig. 3. SEM of specimens obtained using various additive technologies: a – horizontal specimen obtained using EBAM technology; b – horizontal specimen obtained using WAAM technology Ta b l e 2 Chemical composition of the manufactured material Study area from Figure 3, % Ni Cr Nb Mo Si Fe Al Ti C 1 64.0 22.3 1.1 4.2 0.7 1.3 0.1 0.1 6.2 2 2.7 3.5 7.2 0.5 – 0.7 – 48.1 37.3 3 38.5 21.6 16.7 8.9 4.1 0.7 0.2 0.2 9.1 The microhardness of the blanks was determined by the Vickers method at a load of 1 kgf with a dwell time of 10 s, as the average of twenty points at diff erent locations (Figure 4). The analysis of microhardness indices (Table 3) shows that the hardness of vertical specimens is lower than that of horizontal specimens. Both for specimens obtained by EBAM technology and for specimens obtained by WAAM technology, this discrepancy is about 3.5 %. It is also evident from the data obtained that the dispersion of hardness values for vertically orientated specimens is signifi cantly higher than for horizontally orientated specimens. This can be explained by a smaller temperature gradient during the printing process. For horizontal specimens, heat dissipation is more intensive, which leads to the formation of more signifi cant temperature gradients and the formation of a less homogeneous structure. This is consistent with the data of the microstructure analysis of the specimens. In vertically oriented specimens more homogeneous structure is formed; these specimens have fewer pores, fewer inclusions of intermetallic compounds in comparison with horizontally oriented specimens.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 Fig. 4. Microhardness of specimens obtained using various additive technologies: a – horizontal specimen obtained using EBAM technology; b – vertical specimen obtained using EBAM technology; c – horizontal specimen obtained using WAAM technology; d – vertical specimen obtained using WAAM technology а b c d Ta b l e 3 Microhardness of specimens Specimen manufacturing technology Specimen orientation Maximum hardness, HV Minimum hardness, HV Average hardness, HV WAAM Horizontally 251 286 273.0 WAAM Vertically 278 289 284.2 EBAM Horizontally 271 295 283.4 EBAM Vertically 289 300 294.4 The data also show that the hardness of the specimens obtained by EBAM technology is higher than that of the specimens obtained by WAAM technology. This is also in good agreement with the results of microstructure analysis. EBAM technology due to printing in vacuum gives a smoother cooling process of specimens. This leads to the formation of a more homogeneous structure with higher hardness. Conclusions The comparison of the specimens produced by two diff erent additive printing technologies (EBAM and WAAM) was carried out taking into account the diff erences in the resulting microstructure and hardness. Printing using both technologies resulted in dendritic microstructure of the specimens. All specimens contained zones rich in Ti, Mo and Nb. Pores were also observed in the specimens. The grains in the specimens had a predominantly elongated shape and were oriented in the direction of heat removal. The length of the grains reached values of 1 mm. These features were observed for all the specimens obtained, regardless of the manufacturing technology or the orientation of the specimen during printing.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 26 No. 4 2024 Diff erences in the specimens were observed in the number of intermetallic inclusions formed and in the grain size. Thus, the EBAM technology gives more homogeneous structure. As a result, the hardness of the specimens obtained by EBAM technology is higher than the hardness of the specimens obtained by WAAM technology at a similar orientation during printing. The diff erence in hardness between EBAM and WAAM is about 3.5 %. At the same time, the speed of production of specimens using WAAM technology is signifi cantly higher. References 1. Alvarez L.F., Garcia C., Lopez V. Continuous cooling transformations in martensitic stainless steels. ISIJ International, 1994, vol. 34 (6), pp. 516–521. DOI: 10.2355/isijinternational.34.516. 2. Li C., White R., Fang X., Weaver M., Guo Y. Microstructure evolution characteristics of Inconel 625 alloy from selective laser melting to heat treatment. 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