Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 3 EDITORIAL COUNCIL EDITORIAL BOARD EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Anatoliy A. Bataev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Rector, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation DEPUTIES EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Vladimir V. Ivancivsky, D.Sc. (Engineering), Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Machinery Design, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Vadim Y. Skeeba, Ph.D. (Engineering), Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Machinery Design, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Editor of the English translation: Elena A. Lozhkina, Ph.D. (Engineering), Department of Material Science in Mechanical Engineering, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation The journal is issued since 1999 Publication frequency – 4 numbers a year Data on the journal are published in «Ulrich's Periodical Directory» Journal “Obrabotka Metallov” (“Metal Working and Material Science”) has been Indexed in Clarivate Analytics Services. Novosibirsk State Technical University, Prospekt K. Marksa, 20, Novosibirsk, 630073, Russia Tel.: +7 (383) 346-17-75 http://journals.nstu.ru/obrabotka_metallov E-mail: metal_working@mail.ru; metal_working@corp.nstu.ru Journal “Obrabotka Metallov – Metal Working and Material Science” is indexed in the world's largest abstracting bibliographic and scientometric databases Web of Science and Scopus. Journal “Obrabotka Metallov” (“Metal Working & Material Science”) has entered into an electronic licensing relationship with EBSCO Publishing, the world's leading aggregator of full text journals, magazines and eBooks. The full text of JOURNAL can be found in the EBSCOhost™ databases.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 4 EDITORIAL COUNCIL EDITORIAL COUNCIL CHAIRMAN: Nikolai V. Pustovoy, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, President, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation MEMBERS: The Federative Republic of Brazil: Alberto Moreira Jorge Junior, Dr.-Ing., Full Professor; Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos The Federal Republic of Germany: Moniko Greif, Dr.-Ing., Professor, Hochschule RheinMain University of Applied Sciences, Russelsheim Florian Nürnberger, Dr.-Ing., Chief Engineer and Head of the Department “Technology of Materials”, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen; Thomas Hassel, Dr.-Ing., Head of Underwater Technology Center Hanover, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen The Spain: Andrey L. Chuvilin, Ph.D. (Physics and Mathematics), Ikerbasque Research Professor, Head of Electron Microscopy Laboratory “CIC nanoGUNE”, San Sebastian The Republic of Belarus: Fyodor I. Panteleenko, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, First Vice-Rector, Corresponding Member of National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Belarusian National Technical University, Minsk The Ukraine: Sergiy V. Kovalevskyy, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Vice Rector for Research and Academic Aff airs, Donbass State Engineering Academy, Kramatorsk The Russian Federation: Vladimir G. Atapin, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Victor P. Balkov, Deputy general director, Research and Development Tooling Institute “VNIIINSTRUMENT”, Moscow; Vladimir A. Bataev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Vladimir G. Burov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Aleksandr N. Korotkov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Kuzbass State Technical University, Kemerovo; Dmitry V. Lobanov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Associate Professor, I.N. Ulianov Chuvash State University, Cheboksary; Aleksey V. Makarov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Corresponding Member of RAS, Head of division, Head of laboratory (Laboratory of Mechanical Properties) M.N. Miheev Institute of Metal Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences (Ural Branch), Yekaterinburg; Aleksandr G. Ovcharenko, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Biysk Technological Institute, Biysk; Yuriy N. Saraev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, V.P. Larionov Institute of the Physical-Technical Problems of the North of the Siberian Branch of the RAS, Yakutsk; Alexander S. Yanyushkin, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, I.N. Ulianov Chuvash State University, Cheboksary
Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 5 CONTENTS OBRABOTKAMETALLOV TECHNOLOGY Umerov E.D., Skakun V.V., Dzhemalyadinov R.M., Egorov Y.A. Investigation of the eff ect of oil-based MWFs with enhanced tribological properties on cutting forces and roughness of the processed surfaces.............................................. 6 Manikanta J.E., Ambhore N., Thellaputta G.R. Investigation of vegetable oil-based cutting fl uids enhanced with nanoparticle additions in turning operations........................................................................................................................ 20 Shlykov E.S., Ablyaz T.R., Blokhin V.B., Muratov K.R. Improvement the manufacturing quality of new generation heat-resistant nickel alloy products using wire electrical discharge machining................................................................... 34 Ablyaz T.R., Osinnikov I.V., Shlykov E.S., Kamenskikh A.A., Gorohov A.Yu., Kropanev N.A., Muratov K.R. Prediction of changes in the surface layer during copy-piercing electrical discharge machining....................................... 48 Martyushev N.V., Kozlov V.N., Boltrushevich A.E., Kuznetsova Yu.S., Bovkun A.S. Milling of Inconel 625 blanks fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM)..................................................................................................... 61 Fatyukhin D.S., Nigmetzyanov R.I., Prikhodko V.M., Sundukov S.K., Sukhov A.V. Infl uence of the oscillating systems inclination angle on the surface properties of steel 45 during ultrasonic surface plastic deformation................... 77 EQUIPMENT. INSTRUMENTS Borisov M.A., Lobanov D.V., Skeeba V.Y., Nadezhdina O.A. Development of a device for studying and simulating the electrochemical grinding process................................................................................................................................... 93 Lapshin V.P., Gubanova A.A., Dudinov I.O. Predicting machined surface quality under conditions of increasing tool wear............................................................................................................................................................................... 106 Podgornyj Y.I., Skeeba V.Y., Martynova T.G., Sadykin A.V., Martyushev N.V., Lobanov D.V., Pelemeshko A.K., Popkov A.S. Designing the homogenization mechanism.................................................................................................... 129 MATERIAL SCIENCE Usanova O.Yu., Ryazantseva A.V., Vakhrusheva M.Yu., Modina M.A., Kuznetsova Yu.S. Improving the performance characteristics of grey cast iron parts via ion implantation.......................................................................... 143 Abdelaziz K., Saber D. Fabrication and characterization of Al-7Si alloy matrix nanocomposite by stir casting technique using multi-wall thickness steel mold................................................................................................................ 155 Dama Y.B., Jogi B.F., Pawade R., Pal S., Gaikwad Y.M. DLP 3D printing and characterization of PEEK-acrylate composite biomaterials for hip-joint implants....................................................................................................................... 172 Prudnikov A.N., Galachieva S.V., Absadykov B.N., Sharipzyanova G.Kh., Tsyganko E.N., Ivancivsky V.V. Eff ect of deformation thermocyclic treatment and normalizing on the mechanical properties of sheet Steel 10.......................... 192 Bhanavase V., Jogi B.F., Dama Y.B. Wear behavior study of glass fi ber and organic clay reinforced poly-phenylenesulfi de (PPS) composites material........................................................................................................................................ 203 EDITORIALMATERIALS 218 FOUNDERS MATERIALS 227 CONTENTS
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 technology Influence of the oscillating systems inclination angle on the surface properties of steel 45 during ultrasonic surface plastic deformation Dmitry Fatyukhin a, Ravil Nigmetzyanov b, Vyacheslav Prikhodko c, Sergey Sundukov d, Aleksandr Sukhov e Moscow Automobile and Road Construction State Technical University (MADI), 64 Leningradsky prospect, Moscow, 125319, Russian Federation a https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5914-3415, mitriy2@yandex.ru; b https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1443-7584, lefmo@yandex.ru; c https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8261-0424, prikhodko@madi.ru; d https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4393-4471, sergey-lefmo@yandex.ru; e https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9097-8216, sukhov-aleksandr96@mail.ru Obrabotka metallov - Metal Working and Material Science Journal homepage: http://journals.nstu.ru/obrabotka_metallov Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science. 2025 vol. 27 no. 1 pp. 77–92 ISSN: 1994-6309 (print) / 2541-819X (online) DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2025-27.1-77-92 ART I CLE I NFO Article history: Received: 22 November 2024 Revised: 03 December 2024 Accepted: 03 February 2025 Available online: 15 March 2025 Keywords: Ultrasound Surface layer Ultrasonic vibrations Surface deformation Roughness Microhardness Funding This research was funded by the project of the Russian Science Foundation No. 24-19-00463, https:// rscf.ru/project/24-19-00463/. ABSTRACT Introduction. Among the methods of modifying the surfaces of metal products to change the physicalmechanical and geometric properties of the surface layer, surface plastic deformation (SPD) methods are the most prevalent. Using ultrasound to enhance the efficiency of deformation processes allows for increase in microhardness and reduction in roughness compared to rolling and smoothing. The greatest technological challenges are caused by ultrasonic surface plastic deformation of curved surfaces, including those obtained by additive technologies. Given that most ultrasonic SPD methods are based on the longitudinal nature of vibrations, to ensure uniform processing of curved surfaces, the tool axis should be oriented at a specific angle relative to any point on the surface being processed. In this regard, the purpose of the work is to study the effect of the oscillating system inclination angle on the surface properties of steel 45 during ultrasonic surface plastic deformation. This study examines steel 45 samples subjected to ultrasonic SPD at various oscillating system inclination angles: 90°, 75°, 60°, and 45°. Methods. The research methods included metallographic studies of the surface layer microstructure of the samples, measurement of its microhardness and roughness, as well as comparative wear tests. Results and discussion. Ultrasonic surface deformation, at any of the considered tool inclination angles α, creates a hardened layer – from 30 µm at α = 45° to 350 µm at α = 90 °. In this case, the microhardness increases to 240 HV at α = 45°. Furthermore, at any α, there is a significant decrease in roughness. For example, altitude parameters are reduced by more than 8 times. The best results were achieved at α = 60°. The wear test results indicated a substantial reduction in weight loss due to wear following ultrasonic processing. The most significant decrease in wear (more than twofold) was observed at an inclination angle of α = 90°. For citation: Fatyukhin D.S., Nigmetzyanov R.I., Prikhodko V.M., Sundukov S.K., SukhovA.V. Influence of the oscillating systems inclination angle on the surface properties of steel 45 during ultrasonic surface plastic deformation. Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science, 2025, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 77–92. DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2025-27.1-77-92. (In Russian). ______ * Corresponding author Fatyukhin Dmitriy S., D.Sc. (Engineering), Associate Professor Moscow Automobile and Road Construction State Technical University (MADI), 64 Leningradsky prospect, 125319, Moscow, Russian Federation Tel.: +7 968 868-60-73, e-mail: mitriy2@yandex.ru Introduction Reliability requirements for modern equipment are based on the operational performance of parts and assembly units, such as wear resistance, fatigue strength, corrosion resistance, etc. These properties are largely determined by the complex of physical, mechanical, and geometric characteristics of the surface layers of the parts. Currently, a wide range of technological methods exists for forming the structure, microhardness, and roughness and sub-roughness parameters. Methods that provide the desired surface characteristics without material removal are particularly in demand. These primarily include surface plastic deformation (SPD) methods [1].
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV technology Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 Both static and dynamic SPD methods can be significantly improved by applying ultrasonic vibrations to the working tool [2]. This technological approach allows for a substantial increase in the degree of strain hardening and hardness, as well as a reduction in roughness and the creation of a regular microrelief. The intensification of SPD processes using ultrasound is widely applied. A significant body of work, both fundamental [4, 8, 9] and applied [14, 15, 16], is dedicated to this type of processing. Two primary schemes for ultrasonic SPD are based on the use of deforming elements that are either rigidly connected to the oscillating system or are not rigidly connected to the vibration source [23]. In 1964, I.I. Mukhanov first proposed a method of ultrasonic SPD using a working tool rigidly connected to the oscillating system [21]. Further developing this method, I.A. Stebelkov patented a type of processing using free working bodies in 1975 [22]. A rigidly connected working tool allows for more uniform processing and results in lower surface roughness than processing with a free deforming element [3, 6]. However, processing with a free deforming element can achieve a greater degree of strain hardening and a deeper hardened layer [25]. One of the main areas of research in ultrasonic SPD is the study of the influence of this processing method on the structure and properties of various materials based on iron [5, 7], titanium, aluminum, etc. [11–13]. Recently, this trend has been devolving in the field of nanotechnology [20, 26]. Most technical solutions for ultrasonic SPD are based on transmitting longitudinal vibrations to the working tool. Ultrasonic smoothing, used to achieve the lowest possible roughness, can be implemented according to three processing schemes, as shown in Fig. 1. S x î m 3 F N 2 1 n S x 3 FN 1 î m 2 n 2 3 FN î m n a b с Fig. 1. Surface plastic deformation (SPD) processing schemes: a – with normal vibrations; b, c with tangential vibrations (1 – chuck, 2 – workpiece, 3 – tool) The processing of curved surfaces, including those produced by additive manufacturing technologies, presents the greatest challenges [33–36]. When the oscillating system with the tool moves rectilinearly along a curved surface, their force interaction can vary significantly. The tool axis deviates from the normal to the surface, and the static pressing force F is decomposed into components (Fig. 2). When the tool axis is positioned at an angle of α = 90° and the static pressing force is F, there is only a normal component of this force FN, i.e., F = FN. When α ≠ 90°, in addition to the normal component FN, a tangential component Fτ also appears. In this case, FN = F∙sinα, and Fτ = F∙cosα. The periodic force generated by the tool changes in the same way. The nature of the impact on the surface also changes accordingly. At α = 90° and FN = FNmax, each vibration of the tool leaves a spherical imprint on the surface, with the maximum normal strain occurring at the center of the imprint (Fig. 3, a). At α ≠ 90° and with the presence of the component Fτ, the tool slides along the surface, and the imprints are elongated. Normal strains dominate at the beginning of the imprint, while shear strains dominate at the end (Fig. 3, b). That is, by analogy with static methods of SPD, at α = 90° the process is carried out according to a smoothing scheme, while at α ≠ 90° it is carried out according to a vibrational smoothing scheme.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 technology á=90° á=75° Fô á=60° Fô á=45° Fô î m î m î m î m FN FN FN F, FN F F F Fig. 2. Change in the normal FN and tangential Fτ components of the interaction force between the tool and the workpiece surface at different tool inclination angles α (ξm – the amplitude of vibrations of the ultrasonic emitter) a b Fig. 3. Traces (1) and cross-sections of traces (2) of the working tool traces on the sample surface: a – at α = 90°; b – at α ≠ 90° Considering the longitudinal nature of the vibrations, to ensure uniform processing of curved surfaces, the tool axis must be directed at a specified angle to any section of the surface being processed. In order to improve the processing quality of surfaces with complex geometries, ultrasonic SPD methods are being improved andmodernized [17, 19]. Methods using multi-element deforming tools [23, 24] have emerged, as well as hybrid methods combining features of smoothing and impact processing [27, 28] or a combination of SPD with thermal [31, 32] and thermochemical processing [29, 30]. In this regard, the aim of this work is to study the influence of the oscillation system’s inclination angle on the surface properties of steel 45 under ultrasonic SPD. To achieve this aim, the following tasks were addressed: ● to analyze the change in microstructure of the specimens processed by ultrasonic SPD; ● to evaluate the changes in microhardness and roughness of the specimens; ● to conduct comparative wear tests on the specimens; ● to propose technological recommendations for the effective application of ultrasonic SPD at various oscillation system’s inclination angles. Research procedure Materials and methods for specimen preparation A hot-rolled bar made of 45 mm structural steel with a diameter of 42 mm was used for experimental studies. Cylindrical specimens, 300 mm in length, were machined from the bar. The chemical composition of the steel was determined by spectral analysis using a Foundry-Master LAB spectrometer (SYNERCON LLC, Moscow, Russia). The composition is shown in Table. Chemical composition of steel 45 (%) Material C Cr Mn Ni Cu W Si Fe Steel 45 0.46 0.09 0.55 0.27 0.1 0.01 0.21 98.31
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV technology Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 The specimens were machined on a single precision lathe 16E20 (Alma Ata Machine Tool Plant, Alma Ata, Kazakhstan). A surface layer of 0.75 mm thickness was removed from the specimens, followed by contour turning with the following parameters: feed rate SX = 0.34 mm/rpm, spindle rotation speed n = 560 rpm, and cutting depth t = 0.25 mm. The contour turning, using a tool with a tip radius of 0.4 mm, resulted in a regular microrelief of the surface with the surface roughness parameters: Ra = 6.63 μm, Rz = 30.1 μm, Rmax = 33.7 μm, Sm = 0.260 mm, S = 0.055 mm, t30 = 11.6%. These values are consistent with rough machining. The selection of specimen processing mode was based on an analysis of previous studies, for example, [37]. Grooves with a depth of 3–4 mm were made on the specimens every 50 mm, to divide the specimen surface into sections. Similar specimens, made according to the above procedure, were used to study the effect of the tilt angle of the oscillating system on the change in the properties of steel 45 under the influence of ultrasonic SPD. After machining, the specimens were normolized at T = 860 °C. The microhardness on the surface of the specimens was 165 HV 20, and the core material, it was 125 HV 20. Experimental procedure and equipment Ultrasonic SPD was performed according to the scheme shown in Fig. 4. An ultrasonic oscillating system with a waveguide concentrator was mounted in the tool holder of the lathe. A rod-type, three-halfwavelength magnetostrictive oscillating system PMS-2.0/22 (Afalina LLC, Moscow, Russia) was used. It consists of a magnetostrictive transducer made of 49K2F alloy, located in a water-cooling casing, and a waveguide concentrator made of titanium alloy soldered to its end. To ensure the indenter is pressed against the workpiece surface with the necessary force, the oscillating system is equipped with a spring that provides a defined clamping force. A stepped titanium emitter with a transmitting surface diameter of ∅16 mm, which has a vibration amplitude amplification factor of ky = 2, was connected to the waveguide of the oscillating system via a threaded connection. A WC8 hard Fig. 4. Design of an experiment
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 technology alloy indenter was soldered to the working end of the emitter. The indenter is a 6 mm thick plate in the shape of a circle segment with a diameter of 16 mm. The edge of the plate is rounded. The oscillating system was powered by a generator UZG2-22 (Afalina LLC, Moscow, Russia) with a maximum output power of 2 kW. The generator has automatic frequency control (AFC) and amplitude control functions, which allows changing the resonant frequency when the mechanical load at the end of the emitter changes. An electrodynamic vibrometer was used to measure the amplitude of oscillatory displacements ξm. This consists of a magnetic system comprising an annular permanent magnet (TU 48-1301-16–73), a measuring coil on a plexiglass frame containing 800 turns of PEV2-0.1 wire, and disc-shaped magnetic cores. The vibrometer was positioned on a waveguide of a rod oscillating system. To evaluate the maximum vibration amplitude ξm, the vibrometer was calibrated optically using a microscope. During operation of the oscillating system, the signal from the electrodynamic vibrometer was fed to a voltmeter, the scale of which was calibrated using the microscope. The specimen was secured in the lathe chuck on one end and supported by the lathe center on the other. To prevent the transmission of high-frequency vibrations to the chuck and center, they were equipped with PTFE (Teflon) vibration isolation pads. The lathe spindle speed was set to n = 560 rpm, which provides a processing speed of approximately Vr ≈ 1.2 m/s for the chosen specimen. Literature analysis [25, 26] and preliminary experiments indicate that changes in spindle speed have a negligible effect on changes in hardness and roughness. When varying the speed over a wide range, the roughness, with all other parameters held constant, changed by no more than 8–12 %, and the change in hardness did not exceed 10 %. Moreover, increasing the speed significantly increases the indenter temperature. Based on an analysis of SPD studies and preliminary experimental data, the following ultrasonic processing parameters were selected: longitudinal feed SX, oscillation amplitude ξmax and clamping force FN. For the given material and processing conditions, decreasing the feed rate Sx of the tool increases the technological effect, but significantly reduces the processing productivity. Therefore, a value of SX = 0.24 mm/rev was selected. The vibration amplitude was selected within the range of ξmax = 8–10 μm, since the most significant reduction in surface roughness is observed at these amplitudes. Increasing the clamping force above FN = 100–120 N does not lead to a significant result, so processing was performed at FN = 100 N. The study of the influence of the oscillating systems’ inclination angle on the properties of the deformed layer was carried out as follows: When processing the specimen according to the scheme shown in Fig. 4, the oscillating system with the working tool (indenter) was installed in the tool holder at an angle of α = 90° to the specimen surface in section 1. After processing section 1, the position of the oscillating system was changed by rotating the tool holder. During processing of section 2, the inclination angle α of the oscillating system was 75°; during processing of section 3 it was 60°, and during processing of section 4 it was 45°. Section 5 was retained as a control specimen. An example of processing the specimen sections at the oscillating systems’ inclination angles of 75° and 45° is shown in Fig. 5. Assessment of surface microgeometry The standard surface roughness parameters according to GOST 2789–73 were assessed on the control and processed samples: arithmetic mean deviation of the profile Ra, height of irregularities over 10 points Rz, maximum height of the profile irregularities Rmax, mean spacing of profile irregularities Sm, mean spacing of local peaks S, and relative bearing length of the profile tp, where p is the level of the profile section. The level of the profile section p was taken to be 30 % during measurements. The surface roughness parameters were measured on a profilometer Model 130 (Proton JSC, Zelenograd, Russia).
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV technology Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 a b Fig. 5. Processing of sample sections at oscillating system inclination angles of: a – 75° and b – 45° When plotting the dependencies of the roughness parameters, the values were taken as the arithmetic mean of five measurements at different sections of the specimen. The obtained experimental data were approximated using the least squares method. Numerical and graphical processing of the measurement results was performed in the Statistica program. Since the spread of the obtained values did not exceed the 3σ interval, the data can be considered reliable. Assessment of the surface structure and properties The microstructure and microhardness of the control and processed specimens were also assessed. The microstructure was studied using a metallographic microscope METAM RV-22 (LOMO JSC, St. Petersburg, Russia), which is an inverted microscope with a top stage. The microscope is designed for visual observation of the microstructure of metals, alloys, and other opaque objects in reflected light under direct illumination in brightfield and darkfield modes. The magnification range is 80×–1,000×. The microhardness of the specimens was measured using a PMT-3 microhardness tester (LOMO JSC, St. Petersburg, Russia) according to the procedure based on GOST 2999–75. The depth of the modified layer was determined in a normal section. Assessment of friction and wear The obtained samples were subjected to friction and wear tests. The tests were performed using a universal friction machine MTU-01 (Prodvinutie Tekhnologii LLC, Moscow) [38] according to TU 32.99.53-001-78940767–2018. The tests were conducted without the use of lubricants on specimens representing a segment of the cylinder specimen. A cup made of steel 45 with an outer diameter of 34 mm and a wall thickness of 10 mm was used as the counterbody. The friction torque and axial load on the machine spindle were recorded using MTU-01 strain gauges. The contact scheme: the end of the rotating cup and the cylindrical surface of the specimen. Graphical representation of the changes in the registered parameters is recorded and processed by a computer using the software module QMbox. Wear during friction was determined by the change in weight of the tested specimens before and after the testing using analytical balance GF-1000 (A&D Company, Limited, Japan) with a sampling rate of 0.001 g. Results and Discussion Roughness The results presented in Fig. 6 were obtained under the selected ultrasonic surface deformation mode. In the presented graphs, the roughness values at α = 0° were obtained on specimens after turning with the selected mode but without ultrasonic exposure. The remaining dependencies were obtained during processing the specimens with tool inclination angles in the range of 45°–90°. A significant reduction in
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 technology a b Fig. 6. Dependence of the change in the roughness parameters on the tool inclination angle α: a – altitude Ra, Rz, Rtm and b – spacing Sm, S, tp Fig. 7. Surface profiles obtained at different working tool inclination angles: a – without SPD; b – at α = 90°; c – at α = 75°; d – at α = 60°; e – at α = 45° height and spacing parameters of roughness, as well as an increase in tp, is observed for all specimens. The smallest changes are observed with a tool inclination angle of α = 90°, and the largest changes occur at α = 60°. This pattern of changes is related to the fact that as α decreases, the tangential component of the static clamping force Fτ increases, and, consequently, shear strains increase. Fig. 7 shows the surface profilograms of the specimens before and after ultrasonic processing with different inclination angles of the working tool.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV technology Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 a b c d e Fig. 8. Microstructures of samples obtained at different working tool inclination angles: a – at α = 90°; b – at α = 75°; c – at α = 60°; d – at α = 45; e – without SPD The formation of a regular microrelief is clearly visible in the profilograms when processing with tool inclination angles of 90° and 75°. At smaller angles, the regularity is disrupted, but a greater change in roughness parameters occurs. Structure, hardness and microhardness When a significant clamping force is applied, the deforming element and emitter oscillate in common mode, i.e., the tool does not detach from the workpiece surface, and the processing conditions are close to smoothing. The main mechanism creating deformation of the surface layer is loading the workpiece surface with a ball under the action of a static clamping force and a significantly larger dynamic force created by the emitter vibrations. This results in both hardening and smoothing of the surface. Obviously, when the tool inclination angle is α = 90°, the force acting on the surface has only one normal component, FN, which creates the most favorable conditions for surface hardening (work hardening). As the angle decreases, the normal component FN decreases, and the tangential component Fτ increases. This leads to a decrease in hardness and a reduction in the depth of the hardened layer, but it also reduces the size of micro-irregularities due to smoothing. The results of metallographic studies are presented in Fig. 8. As the experimental results show (Fig. 9), the depth of the work-hardened layer increases with an increase in the inclination angle α of the working tool. At α = 45°, changes in the structure and properties extend to a depth of up to 50 μm, and at α = 90°, the depth reaches 345 μm. Obviously, the depth of the deformed layer is determined by the magnitude of the normal component FN of the force. At the same time, the highest microhardness at a depth of up to 50 μm is achieved at α = 45°, which is related to the shear strains created by the tangential component Fτ. Friction torque and wear Comparative wear tests of the specimens were carried out at a constant clamping force between the specimen and the counterbody N = 25 N. The spindle speed was n = 160 rpm. As a result, the dependence of the change in friction torque Mfr over 1,000 cycles was obtained (Fig. 10).
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 technology Fig. 9. Hardened layer depth L at different working tool inclination angles α Fig. 10. Wear dynamics of samples obtained at different working tool inclination angles α Both the increase in hardness and the decrease in roughness have a certain effect on the friction and wear processes. The results of the conducted studies show that the friction torque Mfr for all tested specimens increases over 450–550 cycles. The highest friction torques are observed during the wear of the surface layer, which corresponds to the running-in period for specific friction conditions. When an equilibrium roughness is formed on the specimens, the friction torque Mfr begins to decrease. The highest friction torque Mfr was observed in the specimen without SPD processing. In the specimens processed with SPD at various inclination angles α of the working tool, a significantly lower Mfr was recorded, indicating a reduction in wear. After reaching the wear depth in the specimens corresponding to the depth of the deformed layer, the process stabilizes, and for a duration of 850–1,000 cycles, the dynamics of the change in friction torque Mfr become similar for all specimens.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV technology Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 References 1. Radchenko V.P., Saushkin M.N., Bochkova T.I. A mathematical modeling and experimental study of forming and relaxation of the residual stresses in plane samples made of EP742 alloy after the ultrasonic hardening under the high-temperature creep conditions. PNRPU Mechanics Bulletin, 2016, vol. 1, pp. 93–112. DOI: 10.15593/perm. mech/2016.1.07. 2. Krylova N.A., Shuvaev V.G. Obespechenie nadezhnosti i kachestva poverkhnostei detalei ul'trazvukovym poverkhnostnym plasticheskim deformirovaniem [Ensuring the reliability and quality of surfaces of parts by ultrasonic surface plastic deformation]. Nadezhnost' i kachestvo = Reliability and Quality, 2018, vol. 2, pp. 205–206. 3. Abramov O.V., Prikhod’koV.M., ed. Moshchnyi ul’trazvuk v metallurgii i mashinostroenii [Powerful ultrasound in metallurgy and mechanical engineering], Moscow, Yanus-K Publ., 2006. 687 p. ISBN 5-8037-0314-1. 4. Bai F., Saalbach K.-A., Wang L., Wang X., Twiefel J. Impact of time on ultrasonic cavitation peening via detection of surface plastic deformation, Ultrasonics, 2018, vol. 84, pp. 350–355. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultras.2017.12.001. 5. Zhang Y., Huang L., Lu F., Qu S., Ji V., Hu X., Liu H. Effects of ultrasonic surface rolling on fretting wear behaviors of a novel 25CrNi2MoV steel. Materials Letters, 2021, vol. 284 (2), p. 128955. DOI: 10.1016/j. matlet.2020.128955. 6. Cui Z., Mi Y., Qiu D., Dong P., Qin Z., Gong D., Li W. Microstructure and mechanical properties of additively manufactured CrMnFeCoNi high-entropy alloys after ultrasonic surface rolling process. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2021, vol. 887, pp. 161393. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2021.161393. 7. Lai F., Qu S., Lewis R., Slatter T., Fu W., Li X. The influence of ultrasonic surface rolling on the fatigue and wear properties of 23-8N engine valve steel. International Journal of Fatigue, 2019, vol. 125, pp. 299–313. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2019.04.010. Before and after the friction tests, the specimens were weighed. As the inclination angle of the oscillating system decreased, the amount of wear by mass increased. The lowest wear (0.146 g) was recorded in the specimens processed at an inclination angle of α = 90°. At angles α of 75°, 60°, and 45°, the change in mass was 0.195, 0.178, and 0.231 g, respectively. Conclusions The studies conducted on the influence of ultrasonic SPD with different inclination angles of the working tool on the surface properties of steel 45 specimens have revealed the features of this technological method. The studies have shown that the inclination angle of the working tool has a different effect on the characteristics of the surface layer controlled in the study. Ultrasonic SPD under the selected processing modes allows reducing the height roughness parameters by up to 6–7 times, the spacing parameters by up to 3 times, and also increasing the relative bearing length of the profile by up to 4 times. Moreover, the best results are achieved at an inclination angle of α = 45°. The maximum depth of the work-hardened layer is achieved at α = 90°, and under the selected processing modes, it is 345 μm. As the angle α decreases, the normal component of the force of interaction between the tool and the workpiece decreases, and the work hardening decreases accordingly. The lowest wear is also observed at the greatest depth of work hardening. Based on the conducted studies, it can be stated that the choice of the oscillating system inclination angle is made based on the requirements for the resulting surface layer. In cases where it is necessary to obtain the lowest values of the roughness parameters, it is advisable to set the inclination angle to α = 45–60°. The greatest depth of the deformed layer and, as a consequence, greater wear resistance is achieved at α = 75°…90°. Since, as noted, the most significant factors are feed and clamping force, the obtained results can be used in the processing of curved surfaces of parts, in particular, those obtained by additive manufacturing technologies. In such cases, the ultrasonic equipment is installed on a machine that provides the required strategy for moving the working tool, while the most rational technological method is to regulate the oscillating system inclination angle during processing.
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