Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 3 EDITORIAL COUNCIL EDITORIAL BOARD EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Anatoliy A. Bataev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Rector, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation DEPUTIES EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Vladimir V. Ivancivsky, D.Sc. (Engineering), Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Machinery Design, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Vadim Y. Skeeba, Ph.D. (Engineering), Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Machinery Design, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Editor of the English translation: Elena A. Lozhkina, Ph.D. (Engineering), Department of Material Science in Mechanical Engineering, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation The journal is issued since 1999 Publication frequency – 4 numbers a year Data on the journal are published in «Ulrich's Periodical Directory» Journal “Obrabotka Metallov” (“Metal Working and Material Science”) has been Indexed in Clarivate Analytics Services. Novosibirsk State Technical University, Prospekt K. Marksa, 20, Novosibirsk, 630073, Russia Tel.: +7 (383) 346-17-75 http://journals.nstu.ru/obrabotka_metallov E-mail: metal_working@mail.ru; metal_working@corp.nstu.ru Journal “Obrabotka Metallov – Metal Working and Material Science” is indexed in the world's largest abstracting bibliographic and scientometric databases Web of Science and Scopus. Journal “Obrabotka Metallov” (“Metal Working & Material Science”) has entered into an electronic licensing relationship with EBSCO Publishing, the world's leading aggregator of full text journals, magazines and eBooks. The full text of JOURNAL can be found in the EBSCOhost™ databases.
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 4 EDITORIAL COUNCIL EDITORIAL COUNCIL CHAIRMAN: Nikolai V. Pustovoy, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, President, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation MEMBERS: The Federative Republic of Brazil: Alberto Moreira Jorge Junior, Dr.-Ing., Full Professor; Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos The Federal Republic of Germany: Moniko Greif, Dr.-Ing., Professor, Hochschule RheinMain University of Applied Sciences, Russelsheim Florian Nürnberger, Dr.-Ing., Chief Engineer and Head of the Department “Technology of Materials”, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen; Thomas Hassel, Dr.-Ing., Head of Underwater Technology Center Hanover, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen The Spain: Andrey L. Chuvilin, Ph.D. (Physics and Mathematics), Ikerbasque Research Professor, Head of Electron Microscopy Laboratory “CIC nanoGUNE”, San Sebastian The Republic of Belarus: Fyodor I. Panteleenko, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, First Vice-Rector, Corresponding Member of National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Belarusian National Technical University, Minsk The Ukraine: Sergiy V. Kovalevskyy, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Vice Rector for Research and Academic Aff airs, Donbass State Engineering Academy, Kramatorsk The Russian Federation: Vladimir G. Atapin, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Victor P. Balkov, Deputy general director, Research and Development Tooling Institute “VNIIINSTRUMENT”, Moscow; Vladimir A. Bataev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Vladimir G. Burov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk; Aleksandr N. Korotkov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Kuzbass State Technical University, Kemerovo; Dmitry V. Lobanov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Associate Professor, I.N. Ulianov Chuvash State University, Cheboksary; Aleksey V. Makarov, D.Sc. (Engineering), Corresponding Member of RAS, Head of division, Head of laboratory (Laboratory of Mechanical Properties) M.N. Miheev Institute of Metal Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences (Ural Branch), Yekaterinburg; Aleksandr G. Ovcharenko, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, Biysk Technological Institute, Biysk; Yuriy N. Saraev, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, V.P. Larionov Institute of the Physical-Technical Problems of the North of the Siberian Branch of the RAS, Yakutsk; Alexander S. Yanyushkin, D.Sc. (Engineering), Professor, I.N. Ulianov Chuvash State University, Cheboksary
Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 5 CONTENTS OBRABOTKAMETALLOV TECHNOLOGY Umerov E.D., Skakun V.V., Dzhemalyadinov R.M., Egorov Y.A. Investigation of the eff ect of oil-based MWFs with enhanced tribological properties on cutting forces and roughness of the processed surfaces.............................................. 6 Manikanta J.E., Ambhore N., Thellaputta G.R. Investigation of vegetable oil-based cutting fl uids enhanced with nanoparticle additions in turning operations........................................................................................................................ 20 Shlykov E.S., Ablyaz T.R., Blokhin V.B., Muratov K.R. Improvement the manufacturing quality of new generation heat-resistant nickel alloy products using wire electrical discharge machining................................................................... 34 Ablyaz T.R., Osinnikov I.V., Shlykov E.S., Kamenskikh A.A., Gorohov A.Yu., Kropanev N.A., Muratov K.R. Prediction of changes in the surface layer during copy-piercing electrical discharge machining....................................... 48 Martyushev N.V., Kozlov V.N., Boltrushevich A.E., Kuznetsova Yu.S., Bovkun A.S. Milling of Inconel 625 blanks fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM)..................................................................................................... 61 Fatyukhin D.S., Nigmetzyanov R.I., Prikhodko V.M., Sundukov S.K., Sukhov A.V. Infl uence of the oscillating systems inclination angle on the surface properties of steel 45 during ultrasonic surface plastic deformation................... 77 EQUIPMENT. INSTRUMENTS Borisov M.A., Lobanov D.V., Skeeba V.Y., Nadezhdina O.A. Development of a device for studying and simulating the electrochemical grinding process................................................................................................................................... 93 Lapshin V.P., Gubanova A.A., Dudinov I.O. Predicting machined surface quality under conditions of increasing tool wear............................................................................................................................................................................... 106 Podgornyj Y.I., Skeeba V.Y., Martynova T.G., Sadykin A.V., Martyushev N.V., Lobanov D.V., Pelemeshko A.K., Popkov A.S. Designing the homogenization mechanism.................................................................................................... 129 MATERIAL SCIENCE Usanova O.Yu., Ryazantseva A.V., Vakhrusheva M.Yu., Modina M.A., Kuznetsova Yu.S. Improving the performance characteristics of grey cast iron parts via ion implantation.......................................................................... 143 Abdelaziz K., Saber D. Fabrication and characterization of Al-7Si alloy matrix nanocomposite by stir casting technique using multi-wall thickness steel mold................................................................................................................ 155 Dama Y.B., Jogi B.F., Pawade R., Pal S., Gaikwad Y.M. DLP 3D printing and characterization of PEEK-acrylate composite biomaterials for hip-joint implants....................................................................................................................... 172 Prudnikov A.N., Galachieva S.V., Absadykov B.N., Sharipzyanova G.Kh., Tsyganko E.N., Ivancivsky V.V. Eff ect of deformation thermocyclic treatment and normalizing on the mechanical properties of sheet Steel 10.......................... 192 Bhanavase V., Jogi B.F., Dama Y.B. Wear behavior study of glass fi ber and organic clay reinforced poly-phenylenesulfi de (PPS) composites material........................................................................................................................................ 203 EDITORIALMATERIALS 218 FOUNDERS MATERIALS 227 CONTENTS
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 Wear behavior study of glass fiber and organic clay reinforced poly-phenylene-sulfide (PPS) composites material Vishavjit Bhanavase a, Bhagwan Jogi b, *, Yogiraj Dama c Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University, Lonere, Raigad, Maharashtra, 402103, India a https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2268-2693, vlbhanavase@sinhgad.edu; b https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2099-7533, bfjogi@dbatu.ac.in; c https://orcid.org/0009-0008-5404-4347, yogirajdama@dbatu.ac.in Obrabotka metallov - Metal Working and Material Science Journal homepage: http://journals.nstu.ru/obrabotka_metallov Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science. 2025 vol. 27 no. 1 pp. 203–217 ISSN: 1994-6309 (print) / 2541-819X (online) DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2025-27.1-203-217 ART I CLE I NFO Article history: Received: 10 January 2025 Revised: 23 January 2025 Accepted: 03 February 2025 Available online: 15 March 2025 Keywords: Poly-phenylene-sulphide (PPS) Glass fibre Bentonite clay Friction and wear Tribological testing using the “pin-on-disc” method Taguchi design Wear behavior ABSTRACT Introduction. This study investigates the influence of key operating parameters (load, sliding velocity, and sliding distance) on the wear behavior of composites made of 40 % glass fiber and polyphenylene sulphide (PPS), with varying weight fractions of bentonite clay. The main purpose was to evaluate how different experimental conditions affect the wear characteristics. To achieve this, experiments were conducted using a Taguchi L9 orthogonal array at three levels of complexity. The tribological tests were performed on a pin-on-disc setup, following ASTM G99 standards, with six material samples containing different weight fractions of bentonite clay. The results show that wear of the original (virgin) sample increases with an increase in the applied average load. In contrast, samples containing bentonite clay exhibit a decrease in wear with increasing average load. Furthermore, an increase in the bentonite clay content leads to a significant reduction in wear, but a further increase to 7 % clay results in a noticeable increase in wear values. Research Methods. This study investigates the effect of load, sliding velocity, and weight fraction of bentonite clay on the wear and coefficient of friction (COF) of a composite material. Composite samples with varying clay content were tested using a pin-on-disc setup, and wear and COF were measured as dependent parameters. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to analyze the wear surfaces after testing to reveal the influence of independent parameters on wear mechanisms and surface morphology. The results revealed important trends in the friction and wear behavior under different conditions. Comparative analysis provided insights into optimizing the tribological performance of the material by balancing load, velocity, and clay content. Result and Discussion. This study investigates the effect of bentonite clay addition on the wear behaviour of PPS + GF composites. The findings reveal that wear decreases by up to 3 % with an increase in the weight percentage of bentonite clay, but increases again with a further increase in clay content. It is noted that a higher weight fraction of bentonite clay leads to an increase in the specific wear rate and a decrease in the coefficient of friction due to the manifestation of an abrasive wear mechanism caused by clay agglomeration. Conversely, a lower clay weight fraction promotes a reduction in the wear rate while increasing the coefficient of friction.This work intends to address the dual challenge of performance optimization and cost reduction in friction and wear applications. The need of the work. The purpose of this research is to develop an organic polymer composite that exhibits both high performance and costeffectiveness. One of the key objectives is to create such a composite material using bentonite clay, an organic and readily available material that can be sourced at a low cost. This will enable the production of a competitively priced composite without compromising quality. Another goal of the research is to replace existing friction materials in brake and clutch systems with the newly developed composite, potentially improving its performance and durability. Furthermore, this work aims to create a composite material suitable for use in sliding bearings, particularly those operating in corrosive environments. Such a composite should possess increased resistance to chemical degradation, ensuring an extended lifespan and reliability under severe operating conditions. For citation: Bhanavase V., Jogi B.F., Dama Y.B. Wear behavior study of glass fiber and organic clay reinforced poly-phenylene-sulfide (PPS) composites material. Obrabotka metallov (tekhnologiya, oborudovanie, instrumenty) = Metal Working and Material Science, 2025, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 203–217. DOI: 10.17212/1994-6309-2025-27.1-203-217. (In Russian). ______ * Corresponding author Jogi Bhagwan Fatru, Professor Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University, Lonere, Raigad, 402103, Maharashtra, India Tel.: +91 942-116-6370, e-mail: bfjogi@dbatu.ac.in
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 Abbreviations PPS – Polyphenylene Sulphide GF – Glass Fibre COF – Coefficient of Friction SEM – Scanning Electron Microscopy FRP – Fibre-Reinforced Polymer MMT – Montmorillonite POM – Polyoxymethylene PTFE – Poly-Tetra-Fluoro-Ethylene EDS – Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy HRC – Rockwell C scale hardness OMMT – Organically Modified Montmorillonite SAXS – Small Angle X-ray Scattering Introduction The problem of pollution associated with particulate emissions from ceramic, semi-metallic, and metallic brake pads has stimulated research into their replacement with alternative materials based on natural fibers, such as flax, hemp, and sisal. These organic fibers offer advantages in terms of cost-effectiveness, biodegradability, and low weight. Concurrently, synthetic fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are finding widespread application in various engineering fields, including aerospace, automotive, and civil industries, due to their high specific properties (modulus of elasticity and strength), biodegradability (in specific cases), corrosion resistance, and long service life. A key role in determining the properties of FRP composites is played by the fiber-matrix interphase, through which shear stresses are transferred from the matrix to the reinforcing fiber, influencing both the short-term and long-term characteristics of the material. This paper presents a review of the structure and properties of the fiber-matrix interphase [1–3]. It is shown that the characteristics of the interphase between the reinforcing fiber and the polymer matrix have a significant impact on the mechanical and tribological properties of the composite. Using the example of GFF/PPS (glass fiber/polyphenylene sulfide) composites, it is demonstrated that an optimal composition containing 80 wt. % GFF (~70 vol. %) provides the best mechanical properties and wettability. The high mechanical performance of PPS composites with ultrahigh GFF content is attributed to the increased thickness of the interphase layer and the effect of fiber interlocking. In the context of environmental friendliness, the use of biodegradable reinforcing fibers, such as clay, can raise questions when applied to carbon fiber / clay / POM (polyoxymethylene) based composites. Experiments aimed at studying the mechanical and tribological properties of such composites have shown that adding clay contributes to an increase in tensile modulus and strength. It has been established that the adding of carbon fiber into POM composites improves their mechanical properties and wear resistance. A carbon fiber, clay, and POM-based composite demonstrated minimal specific wear rate and coefficient of friction values. Polymer composites modified with nanoclays exhibit enhanced mechanical properties, such as tensile strength, yield strength, modulus of elasticity, fracture toughness, and fatigue strength, compared to unmodified polymers. Nevertheless, data on the wear resistance and surface mechanical properties (hardness and scratch resistance) of such materials remain limited. It has been shown that optimizing the content (wt. %) of nanoclay helps to improve the interfacial interaction between the fiber, polymer matrix, and nanoclay, which opens up prospects for increasing the effectiveness of nanocomposite applications in structural applications [4–6]. To evaluate the tribological characteristics of composite materials, the wear rate and coefficient of friction were determined. Experimental studies have shown that polymer composites containing carbon fibers, graphite, and polytetrafluoroethylene in a polyphenylene sulfide matrix exhibit good wear resistance
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 performance under operating conditions. It is noted that surface treatment of montmorillonite (MMT) clay leads to improved adhesion and interaction with reinforcing components, which positively affects the strength characteristics of the composites (tensile and flexural strength) and complements the functionality provided by natural fibers. Surface modification imparts hydrophobic properties to hydrophilic MMT, enhancing its compatibility with the organic polymer matrix. It should be noted that the interfacial interaction between the matrix and the reinforcing clay fibers has a significant influence on the process of local strain formation (as confirmed by the Digital Image Correlation method), as well as on the processes of initiation and propagation of damage in carbon fiber reinforced polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) samples (5HS) during tensile testing at angles of ± 45° and 0°. Interfacial adhesion has a substantial impact on the failure mode: samples with strong interfacial bonding exhibit cohesive failure, while samples with weak interfacial bonding are characterized by intensive delamination [7–9]. In addition to the interface, the frequency of motion affects tribological characteristics: the coefficient of friction decreases with increasing frequency. Conversely, increasing the sliding distance leads to an increase in the coefficient of friction. Typical load does not significantly affect wear. The dependence of wear on the distance traveled is complex: it initially decreases and then increases. Thus, the coefficient of friction and wear rate depend on the load and frequency of reciprocating motion. The network structure of dispersed silicate layers in nanocomposites, and therefore the viscosity properties of nanocomposites, are largely determined by the concentration of added OMMT fibers [10–12]. This paper presents a novel smallangle X-ray scattering (SAXS) method for analyzing the degree of dispersion of silicate layers in a polymer matrix. SAXS and STEM results showed that an OMMT content of 5 wt. % is a threshold, initiating the formation of a strong flocculated structure of dispersed silicate layers. Further increasing the concentration of OMMT significantly alters the viscosity properties of the nanocomposite containing 5 wt. % OMMT [13]. A composite coating of carbon fiber-reinforced PPS applied to stainless steel and operating under water lubrication condition exhibits significantly higher wear resistance than under dry friction conditions [14– 15]. The tribological behavior of the composite coating under water lubrication depends on both sliding speed and load. At low speed (0.43 m/s), a steady increase in friction is observed, which transitions to a gradual decrease with increasing load. The effect of sliding speed on the wear rate of the composite coating is less pronounced than the effect of load on the coefficient of friction, which rapidly increases under pressure. The coefficient of friction gradually increases with increasing load; at high speeds (0.86 m/s), this effect is amplified [16–18]. A study of the effect of dry and water lubrication on the tribological characteristics of carbon fiberreinforced polyphenylene sulfide coatings shows that the fluctuations of the coefficient of friction over time are more stable when using water lubrication than with dry friction. The composite coating operating under water lubrication exhibits higher wear resistance than under dry friction conditions. Studies [19–20] present data devoted to the study of the tribological and mechanical properties of a composite material consisting of 70 % polyamide-66 (PA66) and 30 % polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) modified with various contents of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). The authors express their sincere gratitude to the Mechanical Engineering Department of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University, Lonere; D. N. Polymers, Chinchwad; Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Kondhwa, Pune; DUTECH India Laboratories, Pune; and Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, for their support and invaluable contributions to this work. The authors are also grateful to the listed organizations for their contributions to the research. Experimental procedure Analysis has shown that adding PTFE to the PA66/PPS blend negatively affects the properties of the latter but significantly reduces the coefficient of friction and increases wear resistance. A PPS-based composite with 40 % glass fiber and varying concentrations of bentonite clay additives, obtained by thermalcompression bonding, is to some extent environmentally friendly. This study investigated the influence of
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 load, sliding speed, and composition on the tribological characteristics of PPS reinforced with 40 % glass fiber and containing various concentrations of clay. The results show that increasing the content of clay particles and their distribution in the PPS matrix contributes to the accumulation of wear debris. This debris is formed as a result of adhesive wear at the contact interface between the composite surface and asperities on the steel disk, which act as abrasive particles. The tribological behavior of this wear debris is determined by the relative height of the asperities on the surface of the steel counterface. It was found that the minimum coefficient of friction corresponds to the composite containing no clay. The addition of 2 % clay leads to an increase in the coefficient of friction, while a further increase to 5 % causes a decrease in the coefficient of friction. Detailed information about the composition of the investigated materials is presented in Table 1. Ta b l e 1 Materials and Method Sr. No. Sample PPS [wt. %] GF [wt. %] Clay [wt. %] 1. PGB0 62 30 0 2. PGB1 60 30 2 3. PGB2 55 30 5 4. PGB3 50 30 9 Ta b l e 2 Test parameters Sliding Speed v [m/s] ± 5 % Pressure p [N/mm2] ± 5 % Load N [N] ± 5 % Time [min] 2.045 0.27 30 20 min 4.085 0.52 50 50 min 6.127 0.78 70 80 min Bentonite clay (aluminum phyllosilicate) is a common component used in combination with PPS and 40 % glass fiber to create an environmentally safe PPS composite. Wear tests were carried out on a DUCOM TR-20-M26 friction machine using a pin-on-disk configuration, providing continuous contact between the sample (pin) and a rotating disk. The experiments used a cylindrical pin with a height of 40 mm and a diameter of 10 mm, in contact with a flat surface of a steel disk with a diameter of 300 mm and a thickness of 12 mm. The disks were made of 41MoCr11 steel with a hardness in the range of 55–58 HRC. The steel pins were made of composite material with carefully selected compositions. The surfaces of the pin and disk were cleaned with a tension-activated operator before each test. Each test was repeated five times using new pins and disks while maintaining constant parameters. The tests were carried out under dry friction conditions to maintain a constant temperature throughout a sliding distance of 33,085.26 m. The experiments used three sliding speeds: 2.0423 m/s, 4.0846 m/s, and 6.1269 m/s, as well as three levels of contact load between the pin and disk. The values of the test parameters for each level are presented in Table 2. The experimental design was developed in accordance with the ‘Taguchi L9’ array, which involved conducting nine tests for each material composition. The purpose of this study was to determine the wear rate and coefficient of friction of six different PPSbased composites with 40 % glass fiber and varying clay contents. The materials were provided by DN Polymers, located in Chinchwad, Pune. Before and after testing, the samples (pins and disks) were weighed on precision analytical balance. Morphological studies of the worn surface were performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 Ta b l e 3 Wear investigation of PGB0 Sr. No. Load [N] Speed [rpm] Time [min] Avg. Wear [µm] 1. 30 200 20 5.58 2. 30 500 50 123.52 3. 30 800 80 142.25 4. 50 200 20 163.22 5. 50 500 50 189.42 6. 50 800 80 192.87 7. 70 200 20 419.12 8. 70 500 50 822.53 9. 70 800 80 825.15 Results and Discussion Investigation of the wear process of PGB0 as a function of load This study investigates the influence of the average load on the wear of PPS + 40% GF composite at a constant sliding speed. The Taguchi L9 array was employed to analyze three operating parameters at three levels, as detailed in Table 3. This approach aims to systematically investigate the effect of load on wear. The results, presented in Fig. 1, show that the PGB0 composite generally exhibits lower wear compared to base PPS. It is noted that the wear of PGB0 increases with increasing load at a sliding speed of 2.0423 m/s (Fig. 1). This can be attributed to the increase in heat generation in the contact zone under load, which leads to softening of the polymer matrix and a reduction in shear resistance required to remove material from the sample surface. Fig. 1. Wear vs Sliding Distance. PGB0
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 Ta b l e 4 Wear investigation for PGB1 Sr. No. Load [N] Speed [rpm] Time [min] Avg. Wear [µm] 1. 30 200 20 3.54 2. 30 500 50 42.35 3. 30 800 80 46.89 4. 50 200 20 57.35 5. 50 500 50 98.96 6. 50 800 80 100.78 7. 70 200 20 105.42 8. 70 500 50 110.54 9. 70 800 80 117.67 Fig. 2. Wear vs Sliding distance. PGB1 Investigation of the wear process of PGB1 as a function of load This section focuses on investigating the influence of 1 wt% bentonite clay on the wear resistance of the composite. As indicated in Table 4, the experiment aimed to assess wear as a function of sliding distance at a constant sliding speed of 2.0434 m/s and various contact load values. The objective of the analysis was to understand the impact of adding 1 % bentonite clay on the wear resistance of the composite under various loads. The results, presented in Fig. 2, show that wear increases with increasing contact load. This trend was observed for all the investigated samples. Comparison with the PGB0 composite (Fig. 2) demonstrates that the addition of 1 % clay leads to a reduction in wear, which is likely due to the action of clay particles as a solid lubricant and an increase in wear resistance under similar operating conditions. However, with increasing load, an increase in the wear of the PGB1 composite is observed. Influence of sliding speed on wear at a constant load of 20 N This section analyzes the influence of sliding speed on wear at a fixed contact load of 20 N. The results, presented in Fig. 3, indicate significant abrasive wear of the material. Wear increases with increasing sliding
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 speed, which corresponds to a three-stage wear pattern: an initial increase, reaching a maximum value, and a steady-state wear stage for each sliding speed. The minimum wear is observed at a speed of 2.0423 m/s, and the maximum at 6.1269 m/s, which emphasizes the significant influence of sliding speed on the wear process. Influence of bentonite clay concentration on the wear resistance of the composite The wear curve (Fig. 4) demonstrates the influence of the bentonite clay content on the wear of the composite. Composites without clay are characterized by the highest wear. Increasing the clay content to 3 % leads to a reduction in wear. Further increasing the clay content (to 5 and 7 %) causes an increase in wear, which indicates the existence of an optimal clay concentration. Fig. 4 shows a decrease in wear for composites with 1 and 3 % bentonite clay and an increase in wear for composites with 5 and 7 % clay. The composite with 7 % clay demonstrates the highest wear. Therefore, to minimize dust formation when used in brake and clutch plates, the clay content should not exceed 3 %. An increase in wear with increasing load is also noted. The obtained results are supported by microscopy and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) data, presented in Figs. 5 and 6. At the initial stage of the tests, an increase in the wear rate is observed, which corresponds to the theory of adhesive wear and is due to the interlocking of asperities on the surface of the disk and the composite pin. As the tests continue, material transfer to the disk occurs, which temporarily increases the wear rate. At the final stage, the wear rate stabilizes. In the case of samples with bentonite clay, a decrease in wear is observed at the initial stages, which is associated with adhesion and the abrasive effect of agglomerated clay. Composites with 1 and 3 % clay show less wear, while composites with a clay content of 5 % or more demonstrate increased wear due to clay agglomeration (Table 5). Influence of transfer film formation on wear The formation of a transfer film on the counterface plays a crucial role in determining the tribological behavior of polymer composites. After the formation of a transfer film, the interaction occurs between the polymer and the material of the film, rather than with the polymer counterface. Studying the characteristics of transfer films is necessary for understanding wear mechanisms. The morphology of the worn surfaces of composites with varying clay content, investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), is presented in Fig. 5. Fig. 3. Effect of Sliding velocity on Wear at constant Load of 20 N
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 Fig. 4. Effect of bentonite clay on Wear value Ta b l e 5 Investigation data Wear v/s Load Sample Average Wear Value [µm] 20 N 40 N 60 N PGB0 5.58 166.14 422.1 PGB1 3.6 58.32 112.32 PGB2 96.3 128.52 131.58 PGB3 274.86 362.16 402.66 PGB4 289.98 521.46 604.26 Fig. 5, a shows that the composite pin with bentonite clay has fewer signs of adhesive wear and scuffing compared to the composite without bentonite clay. Figs. 5, b and c demonstrate the presence of fatigue cracks and agglomerated abrasive particles in the PPS / 40% GF / 5 % bentonite clay composite, indicating a reduction in wear with increasing clay content. On the steel disk, a thick incoherent transfer film is observed, which corresponds to the lower wear resistance of the PPS + GF composite without the addition of clay. Fig. 5, d shows that in the composite with 5 % bentonite clay, agglomeration of clay particles occurs, which increases wear as a result of adhesive and abrasive processes. Thus, a small amount of bentonite clay prevents seizure and sticking to the matrix, promoting the formation of a high-quality transfer film on the steel surface and increasing wear resistance compared to the PGB0 composite (without clay). However, at high clay concentrations, particle agglomeration occurs, leading to increased wear. Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) Data Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) was used for elemental analysis of the composites. Fig. 6 presents the results of EDS analysis of PGB0, PGB1, PGB2, and PGB3 samples, demonstrating their qualitative composition. The EDS system, integrated with a scanning electron microscope (SEM), allowed for chemical analysis of the samples. The following elements were identified in the EDS spectra: silicon,
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 а b c d Рис. 6. EDS Spectrum of: а – PGB0; b – PGB1; c – PGB2; d – PGB3 a b Fig. 5. SEM images of the composite pin surface: a – PGB0; b – PGB1; c – PGB2 and d – PGB3 c d
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 carbon, chlorine, iron, and calcium. The presence of iron and calcium is likely related to the wear of the steel disks and the transfer of wear debris to the sample surfaces. Figs. 6, a–d show the presence of bentonite, carbon, and chlorine, which confirms the inclusion of polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) and glass fiber in the composite. The EDS analysis also shows an increase in the concentration of aluminum, iron, and calcium. Influence of sliding speed on wear at different loads Further research is planned to compare the tribological characteristics of samples with different clay contents at constant load and sliding speed values. Fig. 7, a-c shows the dependence of wear on sliding speed for each sample. Increasing the sliding speed leads to an increase in wear. This effect may be due to the dominance of the adhesive wear mechanism over the abrasive one. The present study investigated the influence of bentonite clay on the wear of PPS + GF composites. Influence of load on wear at constant and minimum sliding speed Analyzing the influence of load onwear at aminimum sliding speed is important for planning experiments using the Taguchi method. Fig. 8 shows that increasing the load leads to a sharp increase in wear for the PGB0 sample (without clay). Samples containing bentonite clay exhibit a smaller increase in wear with increasing load compared to PGB0. Increasing the load leads to an increase in temperature in the contact zone, which softens the polymer matrix and promotes delamination of the polymer film, exposing the glass a b c Fig . 7. Wear vs Sliding velocity
OBRABOTKAMETALLOV MATERIAL SCIENCE Vol. 27 No. 1 2025 fiber. The introduction of bentonite clay slows down the delamination process and reduces the rate of wear increase compared to PGB0. In the PGB0 sample, friction is caused by the interaction between the severed and broken glass fibers and the asperities on the disk surface, which leads to wear. Bentonite clay particles, which act as a solid lubricant, reduce wear by delaying the transfer of composite material from the sample surface to the disk. Conclusion As a result of the study of the influence of bentonite clay on the wear of PPS + GF composites, the following conclusions were drawn. ● Optimizing clay content reduces wear: adding bentonite clay up to a certain concentration (up to 3 wt %) leads to a reduction in the wear rate. This suggests that moderate addition of clay increases the wear resistance of the composite. The lowest wear (3.6 μm) was observed at a clay content of 3 %, while the wear value for the composite without clay at the same load (20 N) was 5.58 μm. With an increase in load to 40 and 60 N, the wear of the composite without clay (166 and 422 μm, respectively) significantly exceeded the wear of the composite with 3 % clay (58.32 and 112.32 μm, respectively). ● Exceeding the optimal clay content increases wear: at a clay concentration above the optimum, an increase in the wear rate is observed. This is likely due to a change in the mechanical properties of the composite. At a clay content of more than 2 %, a significant increase in wear is observed: at 5 and 9 % clay, the wear values at a load of 20 N are 96.3 and 274.86 μm, respectively. These values significantly exceed the wear of the composite with 2 % clay. A similar pattern is observed at higher loads (40 and 60 N). ● Clay agglomeration impairs wear resistance: a high concentration of bentonite clay can lead to agglomeration of particles in the PPS + GF composite. Agglomerates, acting as an abrasive, increase the wear rate. ● Clay affects the coefficient of friction: the addition of bentonite clay can reduce the coefficient of friction due to its lubricating properties. ● A small amount of clay improves tribological characteristics: a small amount of bentonite clay (up to 3 %) allows for simultaneously reducing wear and maintaining an optimal coefficient of friction, providing a balance between wear resistance and frictional properties. These findings emphasize the importance of carefully optimizing bentonite clay content to achieve the desired balance between wear rate and friction coefficient in PPS + GF composites. Fig. 8. Wear vs Load
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